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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Creanierj Butter Maliing 



BY 

JOHN MICHELS, B. S. A. (U. W.) 

INSTRUCTOR IN DAIRYING IN THE MICHIGAN STATE 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SINCE 1900 



ILLUSTRATED 



LANSING, MICHIGAN 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

I 904 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 







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TRE LIBRARY OF 

OONGRESe, 
One OoFy Reoeivw 

MAY. C 1904 

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COPYRIGHTED BY 
JOHN MICHELS 

1904 






PREFACE. 

The author's experience in teaching creamery students 
has demonstrated to him the need of a suitable reference 
book to be used in conjunction with the lectures on cream- 
ery butter making. An attempt to supply this need has 
resulted in the preparation of this work, which embodies 
the results of a long experience both as a practical butter 
maker and as a teacher of creamery management. 

Special emphasis has been laid upon starters, pasteur- 
ized butter making, methods of creamery construction, 
and creamery mechanics, subjects which have usually been 
treated only in a very elementary way in similar publica- 
tions that have appeared heretofore. 

The historical side of the various phases of butter mak- 
ing has in the main been omitted, not because it was 
deemed uninteresting, but for fear of making this volume 
too bulky. 

With the appended glossary explaining all unavoidable 
technical terms, this treatise is offered to the public as 
a suitable hand-book for the student as well as for the 
butter maker who cannot attend a dairy school. 

John Michels. 

Michigan Agricultural College, 
March, 1904. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The ''rule of thumb" butter making days are gone by. 
No one at the present time can hold any important posi- 
tion in the profession of butter making unless thoroughly 
grounded in the principles that underlie it. It is true 
many obscure problems yet remain to be solved, but by 
the aid of the bacteriologist and chemist butter making 
has now been fairly placed upon a scientific basis. 

Bacteriology has shed no less light upon the various 
processes involved in the manufacture of butter than it 
has upon the nature and causes of the diseases with which 
mankind is afflicted. The souring of milk, the ripening 
of cream, the causes of the various taints common to milk 
and cream are now quite thoroughly understood. Along 
with this understanding have come many radical changes 
in the handling of milk and cream and their manufacture 
into butter as well as in the handling of butter itself. 

The best butter makers at the present time are the men 
who are the most diligent students of bacteria and their 
relation to butter making processes. Above their doors 
is written in emblazoned letters "Cleanliness is next to 
Godliness." For cleanliness is the foundation of success 
in butter making. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page 

Chapter I. Milk 1 1 

Chapter II. The Babcock Test 23 

Chapter III. The Lactometer and Its Use 34 

Chapter IV. Bacteria and Alilk Fermentations 42 

Chapter V. Coriiposite Sampling 51 

Chapter VI. Creaming 57 

Chapter VII. Cream Ripening 68 

Part I. Theory and Methods of Ripening 68 

Part II. Control of Ripening Process.... jT) 

Part III. Cream Acid Tests 81 

Chapter VIII. Starters 88 

Chapter IX. Churning 100 

Chapter X. Packing and Marketing Butter 114 

Chapter XI. Calculating Dividends 119 

Chapter XII. Theoretical Overrun 128 

Chapter XIII. Distribution of Skim-milk and Buttermilk. 130 

Chapter XIV. Butter Judging 134 

Chapter XV. Location and Construction of Creameries. . 141 

a. [Model Creamery Illustrated 143 

b. Cost of Building 158 

c. Cost of Equipment 159 

Chapter XVI. Creamery Mechanics 165 

a. The Steam Boiler 165 

b. The Steam Engine 179 

c. Calculating Size and Speed of Pulleys. . 188 

d. Friction : Its Advantage and Disad- 

vantage 191 

e. Tools, Packing and Steam Fittings 194 

f. Valves 196 

g. Lining up Shafting 198 

Chapter XVII. Pasteurization as Applied to Butter Making 200 

Chapter XVIII. Co-operation . . . . „ 213 

Chapter XIX. Detection of Tainted or Impure ]\Iilk 219 



10 CONTENTS 

Page 

Chapter XX. Care of Milk and Skim-milk 223 

Chapter XXI. Handling and Testing Cream 227 

Chapter XXII. Mechanical Refrigeration 232 

Chapter XXIII. Creamery Book-keeping 241 

Appendix 250 

Glossary 261 

Index 265 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING. 

CHAPTER I. 

MILK. 

IMilk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal 
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
their young. It is the only 
food found in Nature con- 
taining all the elements 
necessary to sustain life. 
Moreover it contains these 
elements in the proper pro- 
portions and in easily di- 
gestible and assimilable 
form. 

Designed by Nature to 
nourish the young, milk 
was originally used entirely 
for this purpose and secre- 
ted only a short time after 
parturition. For many cen- 
turies, however, it has been 
used as an important part of the human dietary and cows 
at the present time yield milk almost incessantly. Because 
of its nutritive qualities its use as a dietetic is rapidly 
increasing. 

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint ordor suggestive 
of cow's breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 

11 




Weigh can showing gate opener. 



12 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due 
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
quantities of organic acids. 

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 and 1.033. After 
standing a fev^ moments it loses its homogenous character. 
Evidence of this we have in the ''rising of the cream." 
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water, 
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures: 

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
pilation of -figures from various American Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87.1^ 

Butter fat 3-9^ 

Casein 2.9^ 

Albumen 5^ 

wSugar 4-9^ 

Ash •■ 7^ 

Fibrin Trace. 

Galactase Trace. 

100. o'i 

The great variations in the composition of milk are 
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 13 

Maxiinuin. Miniuiuiii. 

Water 90-69 80.32 

Fat 6.47 1.67 

Casein 4-23 i-79 

Albumen i . 44 .25 

Sugar 6.03 2. II 

Ash 1. 21 .35 

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
even higher than this. 

BUTTER FAT. 

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and 
cheese production. 

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five 
times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
cream and the churning of same impossible. 

The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 



14 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
about one ten-thousandth. 

Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
age of the cow. 

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
between wide limits, the average being 92° F. 

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
butter fat has the following composition : 

Butyrin 3-85 ) 

Caproin 3 -60 I Soluble or volatile. 

Caprylin 55 \ 



Caprin i . 90 

Laurin 7.40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin 25.70 

Stearin i .80 

Olein, etc 35-00 J 



Insoluble or 
non-volatile. 



This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
butyric. 

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms 
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the 
basis of soft fats. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 15 

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
at — 2° F. and melts again at 28° F. 

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter 
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks 
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
perature is such a variable one. 

"The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
enced by : 

1. Breeds. 

2. Feeds. 

3. Period of lactation. 

4. Individuality of cows. 

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 

Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
butter fat. 

With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
tation. 

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 



16 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 

Soluble Fats. The sokible or volatile fats, of which 
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
and other animal fats. 

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those 
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
June butter. 

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
due to abnormal volatile fats. 

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 

Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the 
casein and albumen being by far the most important. 

Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
almost endless variety of cheese. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 17 

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
exact composition still undetermined. 

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing 
sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which 
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture 
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F. 
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein 
and albumen radically differ. 

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
All of the milk sugar is in solution. 

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 



18 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble 
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
''whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig- 
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
of milk. 

Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after 
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 

According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
trum milk is as follows : 

Water 71.69.'^ 

Fat 3-37 

Casein 4-83 

Albumen 15-85 

Sugar 2.48 

Ash 1.78 

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
the animal. 

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
for butter production. 

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con- 
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 19 

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk 
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of 
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production 
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
milking. 

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known 
as osmosis. 

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Alilk from dif- 
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 



20 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
II. — Those of an artificial nature. 

I. QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
gradually richer until the cow *'dries up." The following 
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change : 

Month of Per cent of fat 

lactation. in milk. 



1 4 

2 4 

3 4 

4 4 

5 4 

6 4 

7 4 

8 4 

9 4 

10 5 



It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
up, it may test as high as 8%. 

2. The quality of milk also differs with different 
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
of the individual cows of any particular breed. 

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor 



CREAM BRY BUTTER MAKING 



21 



milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey 
Experiment Station illustrates these differences: 



Breed. 


Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Milk 
Sugar. 


Proteids. 


Ash. 


Aysliire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersev 


Per cent. 
12.70 
14.48 
12.12 
14.34 


Per cent. 

3.68 
5.02 
3.61 

4.78 


Per cent. 

4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

4.85 


Per cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 
3.96 


Per cent. 
.69 

.75 
.64 

.75 







3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
in others to produce poor milk. In other words. Nature 
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
selection and breeding for a number of generations. 



II. OUAUTY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL CON- 
DITIONS. 

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as 
high as 14%. 

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers 
are so much preferred to slow ones. 



22 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the. 
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
the dififerences we often find in the richness of morning's 
and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
in stead of twice a day. 

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
of milk. The person wdio abuses cows by dogs, milk 
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
o? both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
this country and in Europe, that under- feeding to any 
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 

6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly afifect the 
richness of milk, but only temporarily. 

So long as cow^s are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
what the character of feed composing the ration. 

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
and the quality of milk produced. 



CHAPTER 11. 



the; babcock test. 



This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
be mentioned as follows : 

I. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
ing to its quality. 

■ 2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
undue losses in the process of manufacture. 

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
by locating the poor cows. 

4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
tice of watering and skimming milk. 

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
possible : 

1. By the difference between the specific gravity of 
butter fat and milk serum. 

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 

always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing 
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk-, and whey, weighing requires 

23 



24 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 




Fig. l.-Babcock tester. 



tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
to be tested. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 25 

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the followin^s^ 
parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle : 
D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
measures; G, cream scales; H, mixing cans; I, dividers. 

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. i, 
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
This wheel is rotated by means of a steam turbine wheel 
in the bottom or at the top of the tester. When the tester 
stops the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand 
up. As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out 
causing the bottles to assume a horizontal position. Both 
wheels are enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a 
cover. 

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
large division is subdivided into live smaller ones, 
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to 
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
with water it would hold two grams ; but fat being only 
.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% 
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 2. 

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 3. Since cream 
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
when the 30% bottles are used. 



26 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Fig. 2.— Milk 
bottle. 



Fig. 3. — Cream 
bottle. 



.lfe,WMf?i^**74 



Fig. 4.— SUim-milit 
bottle. 



D. Skim=milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 4. 
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



4/ 



i 



nSi 



\ 



Fi>f. 5. -Pi. 
petie. 



M 




Fig. 6 — 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



Fig. 7 - 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
in Fig. 5. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will 
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
pected to deliver only 17.5 ex., which is equiva- 
lent to 18 grams of normal milk, 

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 
milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 

Fig. 6, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
test. The one shown in Fig. 7 is divided into six divisions, 
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 



28 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 
in filling", but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 

H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in 
Fig. 8. 

Acid. The acid used in the test is commercial sul- 




Fig. 8.— Cream sc^alcs. 

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
properly burned and particles of curd may 
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
medium in which it floats. 

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
to the air materially weakens it. 

Making a Babcock Test. The different 
indicated as follows : 

1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark 
on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the 




Fig.9. -Show- 
ingmannerof 
emptying pi- 
pette. 

steps are 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



29 



ZZ^8 



top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
relieving the pressure of the finger. 

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
in Fig. 9. 

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
was emptied into the bottle. 

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
slow rotary motion. 

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 

7. Shake or mix again and then, place the bottle in 
the tester. 

8. Run tester four minutes at the 
proper speed. 

9. Add moderately hot water until 
■contents come to the neck of the 
bottle. 

10. Whirl one minute. 

1 1 . Add moderately hot water un- 
til contents of the bottle reach about 
the 8% mark. 

12. Whirl one minute. 

13. Leave tester open a few min- 
utes. 

14. Read test. 
How to Read the Test. At the top 

of the fat column is usually quite a 
pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 
10. A less pronounced one is found 
at the bottom of the column. The fat 
should be read from the extremes of 
the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4, 
when its temperature is about 140° F. 
Too high a temperature gives too high 



Fig. 10.— Fat column 
showing meniscuses. 



30 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



a reading, because of the expanded condition of the. fat, 
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 




S bis 



I g'7 



!o^ 



Fig. 12.— Milk bot- 
tle tester. 



Fig. 11. — Waste acid jar. 

Precautions in Making a Test. i. Be sure you have 
a fair sample. 

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 6o 
or yo degrees. 

3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 31 

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling the 
bottles. 

6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 

7. Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
reading the test. 

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
The water added to the test bottles after they have been 

whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing 
much lime seriously afifects the test. Such water may 
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. 

As stated before skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are 
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
the cream sample is weighed not measured. 

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read, 
the bottle should be emptied into an earthen jar (covered 
with a perforated board) by shaking it up and down so 
as to remove the white sediment. (Fig. 11.) It is now 
rinsed with one-third pipetteful of cleaning solution, 
which is made by dissolving about an ounce of potassium 
bichromate in one pint of sulphuric acid. Next run test 
bottle brush once up and down the neck of the bottle and 
finally rinse with hot water. 

Testing or Calibrating Milk Bottles. Fill the bottle 
to the zero mark with water, or preferably wood alco- 
hol to which a little coloring matter has been added. 
Immerse the lower section of the tester, shown in Fig. 12, 
in the contents of the bottle. If the bottle is correct, the 
contents will rise to the 5% mark. Next immerse both 
sections of the tester which will bring the contents to 
the 10% mark if the bottle is correctly calibrated. 



32 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

It has been learned that the volume of the graduated 
part of the neck is 2 c.c. Each section of the tester is 
made to displace i c.c. when immersed in the liquid, 
hence the two sections will just fill the scale if the latter 
is correct. 

Calculating Speed of Tester. The speed at which 
a tester must be run is dependent upon the diameter of the 
wheel carrying the bottles. The larger this wheel the 
fewer the revolutions it must make per minute to effect 
a complete separation of the fat. 

In the following table by Farrington and Woll the 
necessary speed per given diameter is calculated : 

Diameter of No. of revolutions 

zvheel of zvheel 

in inches. per minute. 

10 1,074 

12 980 

14 909 

16 848 

18 800 

20 759 

22 724 

24 693 

General Pointers. Black fat is caused by 

1. Too strong acid. 

2. Too much acid. 

3. Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk. 

4. Not mixing soon enough. 

5. Dropping the acid through the milk. . 

Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can be 
prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to the 
water. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 33 

Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by 

1. Insufficient mixing. 

2. Too low speed of tester. 

3. Too low temperature. 

4. Too weak acid. 

Curd particles in fat are caused by 

1. Too weak acid. 

2. Not enough acid. 

3. Too low temperature. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE LACTOMETER AND ITS USE. 



This instrument, shown in Fig. 13, is used to determine 
the specific gravity of milk. The stem has two scales 
upon it, a thermometer scale at the upper end and a lac- 
tometer scale at the lower. The latter scale reads from 
fifteen to forty, being divided into twenty-five divisions, 
each of which reads one lactometer degree. The lower 
end of the instrument consists of two bulbs : an upper one 
containing the mercury for the thermometer scale, and a 
lower and larger one w^eighted with shoti or mercury 
which serves to immerse and to keep in an upright posi- 
tion the large oblong bulb or float below the stem. 

Making the Test. In making a lactometer test the 
sample of milk is carefully mixed and placed in the 
lactometer cylinder. (Fig. 14.) The lactometer is now 
carefully lowered into it and enough milk is added to the 
cylinder to fill it brim full. Now place your eye in a hori- 
zontal position with the surface of the liquid and read 
down as far as the liquid will permit. The reading thus 
obtained is the correct lactometer reading, provided the 
temperature as indicated by the thermometer scale is 60°. 

Corrections for Temperature. Lactometers are stan- 
dardized at a temperature of 60° F. ; but, since it is diffi- 
cult to have a sample always at this temperature, cor- 
rections may be made for temperatures ranging from 50° 
to 70°. As the temperature rises the liquid expands and 
the specific gravity decreases. This decrease amounts to 

34 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



35 



ojic-tcnth of a lactometer degree for every degree of teui- 
peratiire above 60. A decrease in temperature would 
result in a corresponding increase in the specific gravity.. 
For every degree below 60, therefore, we subtract one- 
tenth degree from, and for every degree above 60 we 



Fig. 13. 
LiHCtom 
eter. 




Fig. 14.— Lactom- 
eier cylinder. 



add one-tenth degree to, the lactometer reading. Ex- 
amples : 

1. Lactometer reading is 32.5 at a temperature of 55. 
Corrected reading is 32.5 less .5, equals ^2. 

2. Lactometer reading is 31.7 at a temperature of 67^, 
Corrected reading is 31.7 plus .3, equals ^2, 

Interpretation of Lactometer Reading. In the chap- 
ter on milk we learned that normal milk has an average 



36 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

specific gravity of 1.032. This means that a tank that 
holds just 1,000 pounds of water would hold 1,032 pounds 
of milk. On the lactometer scale the i.o is omitted. A 
reading of 32, expressed in terms of specific gravity, 
would therefore read 1.032. 

Precautions in Making a Lactometer Test. i. A 
lactometer test should not be made until three or four 
hours after the milk leaves the udder of the cow. The 
reason for this is that milk, immediately after it is drawn, 
holds mechanically mixed with it air and probably other 
gases, which tends to give too low a reading. 

2. The sample must be thoroughly mixed. If a layer 
of cream is allowed to form at the surface, the conse- 
quence is that the hollow oblong bulb will float in partially 
skimmed milk and give too high a reading. 

3. A dirty lactometer is certain to give a false reading. 
A lactometer should be washed in luke warm (not hot) 
water to which a little soda or other alkali has been added, 
and then rinsed ofif with clean water and wiped. 

II. MILK SOLIDS. 

The solids of milk include everything but the water. 
If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling temperature 
until all the water is evaporated, the dry, solid residue 
that remains constitutes the solids of milk. It is con- 
venient to divide the solids into two classes, one inclu- 
ding all the fat, the other all the solids which are not fat. 
In referring, therefore, to the different solids of milk, we 
speak of the "fat" and the "solids not fat" which, to- 
gether, constitute the "total solids." The amount of each 
of these different solids present in milk is easily seen from 
the composition of milk. Thus, besides water, milk con- 
tains : 



3-9^ 


fat 


2.9^ 


casein 


0.5^ 


albumen 


4-9^ 


sugar 1 


0.7^ 


ash 


Total 12.9,^ 


=total solids. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 37 



g.'^= solids not fat. 



Relationship of Fat and Solids not Fat. In normal 
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
and the solids not fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
likewise rich in solids not fat. On the other hand, milk 
poor in fat is also poor in solids not fat. As a general 
rule, an increase in the solids not fat always accompanies 
an increase in the percentage of fat. The increase is, 
however, not quite proportionate, the fat increasing the 
more rapidly. 

Since the casein represents the most valuable constitu- 
ent of the solids not fat, the following ratio between this 
substance and the fat very well illustrates the relation- 
ship that exists between the fat and solids not fat in milk : 

According to Van Slykc. 

Per cent fat. Per cent casein. 

3.00 2.10 
3 



25 2 . 20 

50 2.30 

75 2.40 

00 2 . 50 

25 2 . 60 

50 2.70 



Specific Gravity as Affected by Richness of Milk. 

The richness of milk seems to have but a very slight 
effect on its specific gravity. Usually a four per cent 
milk shows a slightly higher reading than a three per 



38 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

cent milk, but the specific gravity of a four per cent milk 
is practically the same as that of a four and one-half per 
cent milk. From what has been said about the relation- 
ship of the fat and solids not fat in milks of different 
richness, it is quite natural that the specific gravity of 
such milks should vary but little. If the fat alone were 
increased, the lactometer reading would naturally be de- 
pressed. But since the solids not fat increase in nearly 
the same proportion as the fat, the depression caused by 
the latter is compensated for by the former. 

Calculation of Milk Solids. The milk solids are cal- 
culated from the fat and the lactometer reading of milk. 
This is done by means of the following formula worked 
out at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station : 

Formula for solids not fat equals one-fourth L R plus 
one-fifth F, in which L stands for lactometer, R for 
reading, and F for fat. Expressed in another way, the 
solids not fat are obtained by adding one-fifth of the fat 
to one-fourth of the lactometer reading. The total solids 
are obtained by adding the fat to the solids not fat. 
Examples : 

1. To calculate solids not fat when the milk shows a 
lactometer reading of 31.6 and fat reading of 3.5. Sub- 
stituting these figures for the letters in the formula, one- 
fourth L R plus one-fifth F, we get : 

(Ql o Q ^ v 

—J— plus ~tr) equals (7.9 plus .7) equals 8 6 equals 

solids not fat. 

2. The total solids in the above sample are obtained 
\)\ adding the fat and solids not fat. Thus: 8.6 plus 3.5 
equals 1 2. 1 equals total solids. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 39 

III. DETECTION OF MILK ADULTERATION WATERING AND 

SKIMMING. 

A knowledge of the methods of detecting- watering and 
skimming of milk is in many cases of considerable value 
to butter makers, even when the milk is bought on the fat 
basis. Where the milk is bought irrespective of its fat 
content, such a knowledge is simply indispensable for the 
welfare of the creamery. 

In normal milk ranging in fat from 3% to 5%, it is 
not difficult to detect a moderate amount of watering and 
skimming. We speak of normal milk because this means 
the milk from a full milking and excludes colostrum milk, 
milk from diseased cows and those far advanced in lacta- 
tion. Normal milk cannot be expected when cows are 
either only partially milked, diseased, or very far ad- 
vanced in lactation. 

The accuracy of determining the amount of watering 
and skimming becomes greater in proportion as the sam- 
ple represents more cows. For example, no sample of 
milk from a herd consisting of six or more cows has been 
known to average below 3% fat. For this reason any 
sample of milk testing below 3%, when taken from a 
herd, is to be looked upon with suspicion. On the other 
hand there are records of individual cows that show tests 
as low as 1.7% and as high as 8%. It is owing to these 
extreme variations in the composition of milk from indi- 
vidual cows, that small amounts of adulteration cannot 
be estimated with the same degree of accuracy in such 
milk as in herd milk. 

Detection of Adulteration. The general procedure in 
determining whether milk has been watered or skimmed, 
or both, is as follows : 



40 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

1. Determine the percentage of fat in the sample under 
consideration. 

2. Determine its specific gravity. 

3. From the fat and specific gravity calculate the solids 
not fat and total solids. 

4. Compare the results obtained with the average 
specific gravity, per cent of fat, solids not fat, and 
total solids given for normal cows' milk, or compare 
with the legal State Standard. 

5. In drawing conclusions remember that 

a. Fat is lighter than water. 

b. Milk is heavier than water. 

c. Skimming increases the lactometer reading. 

d. Skimming slightly increases solids not fat. 

e. Skimming decreases fat and total solids. 

f. Watering decreases fat, solids not fat, lac- 

tometer reading, and total solids. 

g. Watering and skimming decrease fat (ma- 

terially), solids not fat, and total solids, 
h. The solids not fat are less variable than the 

fat. 
i. Skimming and watering may give a normal 
lactometer reading. 
From i it is seen that a normal lactometer reading 
is possible when milk is skimmed and watered in the right 
proportions. A lactometer reading without a Babcock 
test is therefore worthless. 

For herd milk a lactometer reading above 33.5 is posi- 
tive evidence of skimming when accompanied with a low 
percentage of fat. Herd milk showing a lactometer read- 
ing below 28 is considered watered. 

Examples of milk adulteration in which only herd milk 
is considered are given as follows : 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 41 

I. Suspected sample shows: Xormal milk shows: 

Lactometer reading 32 Lactometer reading 32 

Fat 2.5 Fat 3-9 

Solids not fat 8.5 Solids not fat 8.7S 

Total solids 11. o Total solids 12.68 

Conclusion : Sample is watered and skimmed because 
(a) lactometer reading is normal and fat low; (b) solids 
not fat are nearly normal and total solids low. 

2. Suspected sample shows : 

Lactometer reading 33.2 

Fat 3-1 

Solids not fat 8.92 

Total solids 12 . 02 

Conclusion : Sample is skimmed because lactometer 
reading is high and fat low. 

3. Suspected sample shows : 

Lactometer reading shows 29 

Fat 3-4 

Solids not fat 7-93 

Total solids 1 1 . 33 

Conclusion : Sample is watered because everything 
is much below normal, which is to be expected in the case 
of watered milk. 



CHAPTER IV. 

BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action 
forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the 
man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter 
in the dark ; his is chance work. Much attention will 
therefore be given to the study of these organisms in 
this work. 

I. BACTERIA. 

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
in the air, water, and soil ; in cold, hot, and temperate 
climates ; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
terium is capable of reproducing, itself a million times 
in twenty- four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
endure a temperature of 212° F, for several hours. 

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, 
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 

42 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 43 

which an exceedingly varied and active life is possible. 
In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to- 
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
flourish without them. 

II. MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn 
says that, "In general, they are progressive chemical 
changes taking place under the influence of certain 
organic substances which are present in very small 
c[uantity in the fermenting mass." 

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
of the growth and multiplication of various classes of 
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
into lactic acid. 

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
lowing: : 



]\lilk Fermentations J 



[" Lactic. 

Normal -| Curdling and Digesting. 

I Bntj-ric. 

f Bitter. 

I Slimy or Ropy. 



Abnormal... ^ Gassy 
'- I Toxic. 

I Chromoge 



nic. 



44 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

NORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 

We Speak of normal fermentations because milk always 
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
be discussed in the following pages. 

1. LACTIC FERMENTATION. 

This is the most common and by far the most important 
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases. 
Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes 
it is killed. 

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. x\cid is therefore 
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
to secure milk free from them. 

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
always predominates in milk. When, however, miik is 
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG . 45 

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
milk. 

\Miile the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
ripening. There are a number of dififerent species of 
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid. 

2. CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION. 

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to 
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
inability to thrive in an acid medium. 

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
secrete two enzymes, one of wdiich has the power of 
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. "As a 
rule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the 
digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein 
in a manner comparable to rennet." 

It is onl}- occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
are in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
being soft and slimy. 



46 CREAMERY BUTTER MJKIXG 

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
bearing and can thus witlistand unfavorable conditions 
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 

3. BUTYRIC Fi=;rme;ntaT]on. 

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
different organisms are known to produce this acid. Conn 
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
to the anaerobic type. 

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been 
excluded. 

This cl-ass of bacteria has great significance in cream 
ripening and in the keeping quality of butter. In the 
ripening of cream the desirable flavor develops with the 
increase of acidity until the latter has reached .6%. When 
the development of acid goes beyond this, the flavor is 
no longer of the desirable kind but turns rancid as a 
result of the development of the butyric fermentation. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 47 

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable durinp^ 
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
organisms." 

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
made, w^ill usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
this end. 

ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
sion will be given of the most important. 

I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 



48 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever, 
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
check. 

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
and then held at a temperature of 45° for twenty-four 
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty- four hours 
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the bitter fermentation. 

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
taste that often develops in boiled milk. 

• 2. SUMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION. 

This is not a common fermentation and rarely 
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 49 

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
with them sours with great difficulty. 

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
strung out in threads several feet long. 

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores. 

3. GASSY fe:rmentation. 

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
time at low temperature. 

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 



50 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but 
these are of very rare occurrence. 




Fig. 15— Composite 
test jar. 



;HAPTER V. 



COMPOSITE SAMPLING. 



Where milk is bought on the fat basis, it is essential 
that it be sampled daily as it arrives at the creamery. It 
is not practicable, however, to make daily tests of the 
samples because this would involve too much work. Each 
patron is therefore provided with a pint jar to which 
samples of his milk are added daily for one or two 
weeks, the sample thus secured being called a composite 
sample. A test of this composite sample represents the 
average percentage of butter fat in the milk for the period 
during which the sample was gathered. 

Careful experiments have shown that quite as accurate 
results can be obtained with the composite method of 
testing as is possible by daily tests, besides saving a great 
deal of work. This has lead to its universal adoption 
wherever milk is bought by the Babcock test. 

All composite jars should be carefully labeled by plac- 
ing numbers upon them. These numbers should be writ- 
ten in large indelible figures as exhibited by the composite 
jar shown in Fig. 15. Shelves are provided in the intake 
upon which the jars are arranged in regular consecutive 
order. Numbers corresponding to those on the jars are 
placed on the milk sheet opposite the names of the patrons 
which should be arranged alphabetically. 

Taking the Samples. Whatever the method of sam- 
pling, all milk should be sampled immediately after it 
enters the weigh can, not, as is frequently the case, after 
it is weighed. 

51 



52 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Most of the sampling is done by either of two methods : 
(i) by means of a half ounce dipper, shown in Fig. i6, 
or (2) by means of long narrow tubes, one of which is 
shown in Fig. 17. 

The dipper furnishes a simple and easy means of 
sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed, 
and the variations in quantity from day to day are slight, 
the dipper method of sampling is accurate. 

The other method of sampling is illustrated by the 
Scovell sampler (Fig. 17). The main tube of the sampler 
is open at both ends, the lower of which closely fits into 
a cap provided with three elliptical openings. As the 
sampler is lowered into the milk the latter rushes through 
the openings filling the tube to the height of the milk in 
the can. When the cap strikes the bottom of the can 
the tube slides over the openings, thus permitting the 
sample to be withdrawn and emptied into the composite 
jar. 

This sampler has the advantage of always taking an 
aliquot portion of the milk, and furnishing an accurate 
sample when the sampling is somewhat delayed, because 
it takes as much milk from the top as it does from the 
bottom of the can. 

The Equity sampler designed by Kolarik, works on the 
'same principle as the Scovell and has proven very satis- 
factory. 

Preservatives. Milk cannot be satisfactorily tested 
after it has loppered owing to thhe difficulty of securing 
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to add some 
preservative to the composite samples to keep them sweet. 

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
sublimate, formalin, and bichromate of potash. All of 
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING . 



53. 



Fig. ItD.— Milk 
sampler. 



Fig. 17 — 
Scovell 
sampling 
tube. 



where children, and others unfamiliar with their poison- 
ous properties, can not have access to them. 

The bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate can 
be purchased in tablet form, each tablet containing enough 
preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet for about twc 



54 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

weeks. The tablets color the milk so that there can be 
no mistake about its unfitness for consumption. 

When colorless preservatives are used, like ordinary 
formalin and corrosive sublimate, a little analine dye 
should be added to prevent mistaking the identity of 
milk treated with these preservatives. 

During the warm summer time the bichromate of 
potash is not as satisfactory as either of the other two 
preservatives mentioned, because of its comparative weak- 
ness and liability to interfere with the test when too much 
of it is used. When the bichromate is used in the ordi- 
nary solid form not more than a piece the size of a pea 
should be used, otherwise a good, clear test is not possible. 

For spring, fall, and winter use, however, bichromate of 
potash is excelled by no other preservative, either in 
cheapness, or safety and convenience in handling. 

Care of Composite Samples. It is a duty which the 
butter maker owes his patrons to keep the sample jars 
carefully locked up when not in use so as to prevent the 
possibility of anyone's tampering with them. This will 
serve the additional purpose of excluding the light from 
the samples, for they will keep but a short time when 
exposed to light and heat. 

When the sample jars are permitted to stand a few days 
without shaking, the cream which rises will dry and 
harden, especially that in contact with the sides of the 
jar, so that it becomes difficult to secure a fair sample 
on testing day without special treatment of the sample. 
This is prevented by giving the jar a rotary motion every 
time a sample of milk is added. 

It is important, too, that the covers of the jars fit tight, 
otherwise evaporation takes place, resulting in an in- 
creased test. In several instances the author has ob- 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 55 

served that the butter maker ( ?) did not cover the jars 
at all ! Can we wonder why patrons complain so fre- 
quently about the testing? Where the jars are kept 
uncovered for several weeks the cream is in a condition 
in which it can not be reincorporated with the milk and 
the Babcock test in this case becomes truly a snare and 
delusion. 

Should the samples show any dried or churned cream 
on testing day, the sample jars must be placed in water at 
a temperature of iio° F. for five or ten minutes to allow 
the cream or butter to melt. When this is done the 
sample for the test bottle must be taken instantly after 
mixing, as the melted fat separates very quickly. 

Frequency of Testing. It must not be supposed that 
if enough preservative can be added to the sample jars to 
keep the milk sweet for a month or longer that it is just 
as well to make monthly tests as weekly. Far from it. Even 
if the milk does remain sweet, the tendency of the cream 
to churn and become dried and crusty is in itself sufficient 
protest against monthly testing. It is rare, indeed, that 
samples that have been kept for a month or longer can be 
sampled satisfactorily without warming them in a water 
bath, which means a great deal of extra work. 

The best tests are secured when the samples are tested 
weekly or at most every two weeks. When the tests 
are made weekly it rarely becomes necessary to warm the 
samples if they have been properly cared for. Then, 
too, if an error is made anywhere in the testing, there 
are three other tests for the month that help to mini- 
mize It. It is not strange at all that a sample jar 
should break occasionally. If the jar should contain a 
.whole month's milk the patron is deprived of his test for 



56 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that month. On the weekly basis of testing there would 
still be three tests to fall back on. 

Supervision of Test. To relieve the butter maker 
from any suspicion of unfairness or carelessness in the 
testing of the composite samples, one or two of the patrons 
should be present at each testing. When one of the 
patrons thus witnesses the details of the testing and is 
furnished with a copy of the test, the butter maker is 
practically exempt from the suspicions that usually rest 
upon him, no matter how honest or careful a man he 
may be. 

Duplicate Set of Jars. Where the testing is not 
under the supervision of one of the patrons, some butter 
makers have adopted the scheme of providing a double 
set of sample jars. After the test is made the jars, instead 
of being emptied, are set aside for a week, so that any- 
one who has any complaint to offer on the test may call 
on the buttermaker for a retest, another set of sample 
jars being used in the meantime. 



CHAPTER VL 



CREAMING. 



Definition. 'Milk upon standing soon separates into 
two portions, one called cream, the other skim-milk. This 
process of separation is known as creaming, and is due 
to the difference in the specific gravity of the fat and 
the milk serum. The fat being light and insoluble, rises, 
carrying with it the other constituents in about the same 
proportion in which they are found in milk. The fat 
together wnth these other constituents forms the cream. 
After the cream has been skimmed off, there remains a 
more or less fat- free watery portion called skiui-milk. 

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( i ) 
that in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four 
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
creaming. The centrifugal force has the eft'ect of increas- 
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force 
is generated in the cream separator. 

Before the days of the centrifugal cream separator, 
creameries either bought the milk and creamed it at the 
creamery by the gravity process* or bought and gathered 
the cream that had been creamed at the farms by the same 
process. The method of cream gathering is still exten- 
sivelv employed by creameries ; indeed in many sections 

57 



58 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of the country this practice is actually growing. Cream 
thus gathered is, however, largely the product of the 
cream separator, only a small portion being still creamed 
bv the gravity process. The discussion on creaming will 
therefore be confined to the centrifugal process. 

CREAM SEPARATORS. 

History. The cream separator had its beginning in 
1864 when Prandtl, of Munich, creamed milk by means 
of two cylindrical buckets revolving upon a spindle. In 
1874 Lefeldt constructed a separator with a revolving 
drum similar to the later hollow bowl separators. This 
drum had a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. But 
it lacked an arrangement permitting a continuous 
discharge of cream and skim-milk, so that the separator 
had to be stopped at regular intervals when the cream 
was skimmed ofif, the skim-milk removed, and the bowl 
refilled for the next separation. 

It was not until 1879 that real separators appeared 
upon the market. During this year two machines were 
perfected which permitted continuous creaiii and skim- 
milk discharges. One was known as the Danish Weston, 
invented in Denmark, the other the De Laval, invented in 
Sweden. Both of these separators were hollow bowl 
machines. 

Other separators soon followed but no decided improve- 
ment was made until 1891, when the De Laval separator, 
shown in Fig. 18, appeared with a series of discs inside 
the bowd which had the. efifect of separating the milk in 
thin layers, thus increasing 'both the efficiency and the 
capacity of the separator. Since then various bowl devices 
have been invented bv numerous separator manufacturers. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



59 



In 1896 a hollow bowl separator was again placed upon 
the market, this time by the Sharpies Company. This 
separator had a long, narrow, suspended bowl, revolving 
about 24,000 times per minute, in which the efficiency of 
skimming was greater than that in the old hollow bowl 
style of separators. 




Fig. 18.— De Laval cream separator, 



Fig. 19.— Sharpies cream 
separator. 



In 1902 this company introduced another separator 
with a bowl of about the same construction but filled 
with a core made up of numerous sections which allowed 
the speed to be reduced to 14,000 revolutions per min- 
ute. This is a turbine separator a cut of which is shown 
in Fig. 19. 

Numerous other power separators have been in use for 
many years, chief among which may be mentioned the 
United States and Reid. 



60 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Hand separators first appeared on the market in 1886. 
They are extensively used on dairy farms at the present 
time and are rapidly replacing the gravity methods of 
creaming. 

In 1887 a machine appeared on the market which ex- 
tracted the butter directly from sweet milk. This machine 
was called butter extractor. The butter made with 
the extractor was inferior in quality and the machine 
has practically gone out of existence. 

Choice of Separator. In choosing a cream separator 
we should be guided by three things: i. Efficiency of 
skimming ; 2. Power required to operate ; 3. Its durability. 

I. EFFICIENCY OF SKIMMING. 

Under favorable conditions a separator should not leave 
more than .05% fat in the skim-milk by the Babcock test. 
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
of skimming and these must be duly considered in making 
a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
ditions : 

A. Speed of bowl. 

B. Steadiness of motion. 

C. Temperature of milk. 

D. Manner of heating milk. 

E. Amount of milk skimmed per hour. 

F. Acidity of milk. 

G. Viscosity of milk. 
H. Richness of cream. 

I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
in??, other conditions the same. It is important to see 



CRBAMHRY BUTTER MAKING 61 

that the separator runs at full speed during the separating- 
process. The speed indicator should always be applied 
before turning on the milk and several times during the 
run. Loose belts, pulleys slipping on the shaft, and low 
steam pressure will reduce the speed of the separator. 

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
skim-milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
the following conditions: (i) loose bearings, (2) sepa- 
rator out of plum, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) un- 
stable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. 

C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem- 
perature of 85° F. is the most satisfactory for ordinary 
skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest skimming 
is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The reason 
milk separates better at the higher temperatures is that 
the viscosity is reduced. 

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
in skim-milk in ordinary skimming. The reason for this 
is that the fat heats more slowly than the milk serum 
which diminishes the difference between their densities. 
When, for example, milk is suddenly heated from near 
the freezing temperature to 85° F. by applying live steam, 
the loss of fat in the skim-milk may be four times as 
great as it is under favorable conditions. If, instead of 
suddenly heating the milk to 85°, it is heated to 160° or 
above, then no extra loss of fat occurs. Hence the ad- 
vantage of separating milk at pasteurizing temperature 
during the winter. 

E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a marked 
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 



62 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

F. The higher the acidity of milk the poorer the 
creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim- 
milk becomes very great. This emphasizes the importance 
of having the milk delivered to the creamery in a sweet 
condition. 

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) 
bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase its 
viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming. 
Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
tures. 

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim- 
milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the 
skim-milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim- 
milk is richest. 

I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules 
in stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream 
than that produced in the early period of lactation. 

2. POWER REQUIRED TO OPERATE. 

This is a matter of importance as a heavy running 
machine will add much to the running expenses of the 
creamery. Such a machine will not only require more 
fuel but will increase the wear of belts and machinery. 

3. DURABILITY. 

Cream separators are expensive machines and due re- 
gard should be given to their wearing qualities. They 
should be made of the best material, possess good work- 
manship, and have as few wearable parts as possible. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 63 

SEPARATING TEMPERATURE. 

During the summer time, when milk is fresh and re- 
quires Httle heating, a separating temperature of 70° F. 
gives good results. In the late fall and during the 
winter, when milk is received cold and often two days 
old, it is necessary to raise the temperature of the milk 
to 85° before separating. When milk is received in a 
partly frozen condition or when permeated with bad 
odors, a separating temperature of 140° to 170° is pre- 
ferred. Whenever such high temperatures are employed 
it is necessary .to cool the cream immediately after it 
leaves the separator to a temperature of 70° or lower. 

RICHNESS OF CREAM. 

How Regulated. The richness of cream is usually 
regulated by means of a cream screw in the separator 
bowl. When a rich cream is desired the opening in the 
screw is turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a 
thin cream it is turned away from the center. 

In some machines the richness of cream is regulated 
by the rate of separation. With all separators the more 
milk separated per hour and the lower the speed the 
thinner the cream. Too low a speed always results in a 
rich skim-milk and poor cream. 

Temperatures between 60° and 90° have little effect 
on the richness of cream. Wlien, however, the tempera- 
ture is raised to 140° or above , the cream becomes 
thinner. 

Advantages of Rich Cream. These may be summed 
up as follow^s : 

1. Permits the use of more starter. 

2. Contains fewer objectionable bacteria. 



64 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



3. Can be churned at a lower temperature. 

4. Occupies less space. 

5. There is less cream to cool. 

Where a large amount of starter is to be added to the 
cream it is necessary to separate a rich cream so that 
the starter will not bring it below the churning richness. 




Fig. 2J.-Cuitis milk heater. 



In case milk is tainted it is desirable to separate a very 
heavy cream so as to get rid of as much milk serum as 
possible. In this way we get rid of most of the taint, 
which develops in the milk serum. The cream is then 
reduced to churning richness w^ith starter, or partly with 
starter and partly with fine flavored milk. 

The fat globules in a rich cream are close together 
which permits churning at a comparatively low tempera- 
ture. The chief advantage gained in this is the greater 
exhaustiveness of churnin.sr. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



65 



MILK HEATERS. 

There are to be found upon the market two general 
classes of milk heaters : Those which admit the steam 
directly to the milk called direct heaters, and those in 
which the steam enters a jacket surrounding the milk 
known as indirect heaters. 

Direct Heaters. These are practically nothing more 
than an expansion in the feed pipe in which the steam 




Fig- 21.— Twentieth Century milk heater. 



enters the milk. They are permissible only when first 
class steam is available and when milk is to be heated 
through a short range of temperature. But even under 
these conditions indirect heaters are always preferred. 

The two main objections to the direct heaters are: (i) 
the liability of contaminating the milk with impure steam, 
and (2) the effect of the sudden heating upon the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk which may be quite considerable 
when the milk is heated through a long range of 
temperature. 

Indirect Heaters. Figs. 20 and 21 illustrate this type 
of heaters. In the Curtis heater the milk circulates in a 



66 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



thin sheet between an inner removable cyHnder and the 
inner wall of the steam jacket, thus heating it gradually 
as it passes from one end to the other. In the Twentieth 





am^ 



Fig. 22.— Reid pasteurizer. 



Figr. 23.— Bair 
cream cooler. 



Century heater the steam passes inside a series of discs. 
These discs are in motion during the heating and force 
the milk into the separator. Another type of indirect 
heater is the Reid pasteurizer shown in Fig. 22. This 
machine not only heats the milk but elevates it, thus dis- 
pensing with the use of a milk pump. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 67 

CREAM COOLERS. 

With the modern cream ripeners described in Chapter 
VII no special cream cooler is necessary since the cooling 
is very quickly done in the ripener. 

With open vats placed on the same floor with the 
separators the most practical cooler is that belonging to 
the Bair type, which is illustrated in Fig. 23. This cooler 
is from six to eight feet long, about one foot wide, and 
three inches deep. The top of the cream vat need there- 
fore not be more than four inches lower than the cream 
spout of the separator. The circulation of the water is 
indicated by the arrows, the water entering the cooler 
at the point at which the cream leaves it. The surface 
over which the cream flows is slightly corrugated, thus 
increasing the amount of cooling surface. This cooler 
will cool cream within ten degrees of the temperature of 
the water when separated at ordinary temperatures. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CREAM RIPENING. 

This chapter will be discussed under three heads : 

Part I. Theory and Methods of Cream Ripening. 
Part II. The Control of the Ripening Process. 
Part III. Cream Acid Tests. 

PART I. — THEORY AND METHODS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

• 

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
So important is this process that the success or failure of 
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability to 
exercise the proper control over it. In common creamery 
practice the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies 
from six to twenty-four hours and includes all the changes 
which the cream undergoes from the time it leaves the 
separator to the time it enters the churn. 

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime 
object the development of flavor and aroma in butter, 
two qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In 
addition to this, cream ripening has several minor pur- 
poses, namely : ( i ) renders cream more easily churnable ; 
(2) obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in 
churning; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; 
(4) increases the keeping quality of butter. 

Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, 

68 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 69 

is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im- 
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the 
increase in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter 
for example is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
reached .6%. 

From this it might appear that all of the flavor is inher- 
ent in the lactic acid itself. But this is not the case. The 
souring of milk free from fat does not produce the flavor 
found in sour cream, though the acid is the same in 
both cases. The view held by Duclaux is perhaps the 
most satisfactory in explaining the origin of the flavor 
produced in cream ripening. He maintains that since 
some caproic and butyric acids always exist in a free 
state in butter, the flavor may be the result of the forma- 
tion of caproic and butyric ethers from these acids. 

The formation of such ether compounds in cream 
would doubtless be due to the presence of lactic acid. 
And it can not be denied that the lactic acid itself figures 
as one of the components of butter flavor. 

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 
cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This 
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
viscositv impedes the movement of these globules. It is 



70 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
of cream, will facilitate the churning. 

As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream 
the smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
and the consequent greater churnability of same. 

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
since it would be difficult, if not impossible, for most 
creameries to get low enough temperatures for the suc- 
cessful churning of sweet cream. Indeed, many cream- 
eries fail to get a low enough churning temperature for 
ripened cream. 

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
that has been ripened a little too far will posesss very 
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
as the limit when good keeping quality is desired. 

METHODS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

There are three ways in which cream is ripened at the 
present time : 

1. By the unaided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called natural ripening. 

2. By first destroying the bulk of the bacteria in cream 
by heat and then inoculating same with cultures of 
lactic acid bacteria. This method is known as pasteiirizcd 
cream ripening. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 71 

3. By the aided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called starter ripening. 

I. NATURAL RIPENIN0. 

By this is meant the natural souring of the cream. In 
this method no attempt is made to repress the abnormal 
fermentations or to assist in the development of the lactic. 
From the chapter on Milk Fermentations we have learned 
that milk normally contains a number of different kinds 
of germs, frequently as many as a dozen or more. Natur- 
ally, therefore, where this method of ripening is practiced, 
a number of fermentations must go on simultaneously and 
the flavor of the butter is impaired to the extent to which 
the abnormal fermentations have developed. If the cream 
is clean and uncontaminated the lactic fermentation 
greatly predominates and the resulting flavor is good. If, 
on the other hand, the cream happens to contain many bad 
germs the probability is that the abnormal ferments will 
predominate and the flavor of the butter will be badly 
"off." 

Where cream is therefore allowed to take its own course 
in ripening the quality of the butter is a great uncertainty. 
This method, though still practiced by many butter mak- 
ers, is to be condemned as obsolete and unsatisfactory. 

2. PASTEURIZED CREAM RIPENING. 

Theoretically and practically the ideal way of making 
butter is to pasteurize the cream, a process which consists 
in heating cream momentarily to a temperature of 160° 
to 185° F. and then quickly cooling to 60° F. In this 
manner most of the bacteria in the cream are destroyed. 
After this treatment the cream is heavily inoculated with 
the lactic acid bacteria, and the lactic fermentation is given 



72 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

a favorable temperature for development. When cream 
is treated in this way the lactic fermentation is practically 
the only one present and a butter with the desirable flavor 
and aroma is the result. It is the only way in which a 
uniform quality of butter can be secured from day to day. 
This system of cream ripening is almost vmiversally fol- 
lowed in Denmark, whose butter is recognized in all the 
world's markets as possessing qualities of superior excel- 
lence. The method is also gradually gaining favor in 
America and its general adoption can only be a matter of 
time. In the chapter on Cream Pasteurization this method 
is discussed in detail. 

3. STARTER RIPENING. 

This method of ripening consists in adding "starters," 
or carefully selected sour milk, to the cream after it leaves 
the separator. A full discussion of starters will be found 
in the following chapter. 

In America this is at present the most popular method 
of cream ripening. While it does not, and can not, give 
the uniformly good results obtained by pasteurizing the 
cream, it is far superior to natural or unaided ripening. 

When we have a substance which contains many kinds 
of bacteria, there naturally follows a struggle for exist- 
ence and the fittest of the species will predominate. 

We always have a number of different types of bacteria 
in cream, both desirable and undesirable. The latter can 
be held in check by making the conditions as favorable 
as possible for the former. Fortunately, when milk is 
properly cared for the latic acid germs always pre- 
dominate. But where milk is received at the creamery 
from 30 to 200 patrons, undesirable germs are frequently 
present in such large numbers as to seriously endanger 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 73 

the growth of the lactic acid bacteria. However, when a 
large amount of starter containing only lactic acid germs 
is added to the cream from such milk these organisms are 
certain to predominate. 

The best results with the starter method are secured 
when the milk is received at the creamery in a sweet 
condition and when a large amount of starter is used. 
Generally wdien milk is received in a sweet condition, 
especially during the summer months, it indicates that 
it has been thoroughly cooled and that the germs are 
present only in small numbers. When the cream from 
such milk is heavily inoculated with lactic acid germs by 
adding a starter, the development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion is so rapid as to either check or entirely suppress the 
action of undesirable bacteria that may be present in the 
cream. 

PART II. THE CONTROL OF THE RIPENING PROCESS. 

In Part I an attempt was made to convey some idea 
as to our present theory and methods of cream ripening. 
We learned that the highly desirable flavor and aroma 
of butter are produced by the development of the lactic 
fermentation. In the following discussion we shall take 
up the means of controlling this fermentation and treat 
of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
will include: i. The time the starter should be added to 
the cream ; 2. The amount of starter to be added ; 3. The 
ripening temperature; 4. Time in ripening; 5. Agitation 
of cream during ripening ; 6. ]\Ieans of controlling tem- 
perature. 

I. The value of a starter in cream ripening has already 
been made evident in the discussion of the theory of cream 
ripening. To secure the maximum efifect of a starter it 
should be added to the cream vat soon after the separation 



74 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of the milk has begun but not until the cream has reached 
a temperature of 70° F. The cream thus coming in con- 
tact with the starter as it leaves the separator insures a 
vigorous development of the starter germs, so that by the 
time the separation is completed, the starter fermentation 
is almost certain to predominate, especially when a large 
amount of starter is used. 

2. The maximum amount of starter that may be con- 
sistently used is one pound to two pounds of cream. A 
larger amount than this would be liable to result in too 
thin a cream. Experience teaches us that the maxi- 
mum richness of cream permissible in clean skimming 
under average conditions is 50%. Adding one pound of 
starter to two pounds of such cream would give us 
^33 I "3 % cream, the ideal richness for churning. But 
this amount of starter is rarely permissible on account 
of the poor facilities for controlling the temperature of 
the cream. 

3. Since the lactic acid bacteria develop best at a 
temperature of 90° to 98° F. it would seem desirable to 
ripen cream at these temperatures. But this is not 
practicable because of the unfavorable effect of high tem- 
peratures on the body of the cream and the butter. Good 
butter can be produced, however, under a wide range of 
ripening temperatures. The limits may be placed at 60° 
and 80°. Temperatures below 60° are too unfavorable 
for the development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any 
check upon the growth of these germs increases the 
chances for the development of other kinds of bacteria. 
But it may be added that when cream has reached an 
acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
temperature between 55° and 60° with good results. In 
general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 75 

the best results. This means that the main portion of the 
ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
always finished at temperatures lower than this. 

4. As a rule quick ripening gives better results than 
slow. The reason for this is evident. Quick ripening 
means a rapid development of the lactic fermentation and, 
therefore, a relatively slow development of other fer- 
mentations. Practical experience shows us that the 
growth of the undesirable germs is slow in proportion 
as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, when we 
attempt to ripen cream at 55° F., a temperature unfavor- 
able for the growth of the lactic acid bacteria, a 
more or less bitter flavor is always the result. This is 
so because the bitter germs develop better at low tempera- 
tures than the lactic acid bacteria. 

The main portion of the ripening should be done in 
about six hours. After this the temperature should be 
gradually reduced to a point at which the cream will not 
overripen before churning. 

5. It is very essential in cream ripening to agitate the 
cream frequently to insure uniform ripening. When 
cream remains undisturbed for some time the fat rises 
in the same way that it does in milk, though in a less 
marked degree. The result is that the upper layers 
are richer than the lower and will sour less rapidly, since 
the action of the lactic acid germs is greater in thin than 
in rich cream. 

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear 
coarse and curdy when poured from a dipper. The im- 
portance of stirring frequently during ripening should 
therefore not be underestimated. 

6. The subject of cream cooling is a very important 



76 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



one and will be discussed under the head of cream 
ripeners. 

CREAM RIPENERS. 

~~ During the summer 

months much butter of 
inferior quality is made 




bv 



overnpenmj 



the 



cream and churning at 
too high a temperature. 
This is due chiefly to 
a lack of proper cool- 
ing facilities. With the 
open cream vats the 
control of temperature 
is a difficult thing. For- 
tunately these vats are being replaced by the more modern 
cream ripeners of which the Farrington and the Boyd are 



Fig. :i4.— Boyd cream ripener. 




Fig. 25.— Farrington cream ripener 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



77 



types. These ripeners possess two important advantaf:^es 
over the open vats, namely : first, they permit a niore rapid 
cooHng by agitating the water and cream while cooling ; 
second, they maintain a more uniform temperature be- 
cause of tight fitting covers and better all round construc- 
tion. 

With the Boyd ripener, shown in Fig. 24, the cooling is 
done by running cold water through 
a series of tinned-iron pipes which 
are inserted in the cream and kept 
moving to and fro by means of 
power attachment. The cooling in 
the Farrington vat is accomplished 
by circulating cold water in a jacket 
surrounding the cream. The vat 
is of cylindrical shape and is ro- 
tated by power during cooling. The 
Farrington ripener and air com- 
pressor for forcing the cream into 
the churn are shown in Figs. 25 and 
26. 

Since these ripeners are so con- 
structed as to render the addition 
of ice to the water in them im- 
possible, they can not be considered 
complete without an ice water at- 
tachment. In Fig. 2y an ice water 
tank may be seen attached to the Boyd ripener. Ice water 
may be circulated in the same way with the Farrington 
ripener. 

Tank A contains ice water which is kept circulating 
through the ripener by means of pump B. By using the 
water over and over again, only a very small quantity 




Fig. 26.— Air compressoi". 



78 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



of ice is required in cooling cream to the desired tempera- 
ture. When the great cooling power of ice is once fully 
understood it is easy to see what a great amount of 
cooling a small quantity of ice will do. One pound of 
ice in melting will give out 140 times as much cold as 




Fig. 27.— Showing method of circulating ice water through ripener. 

one pound of water raised from 32° to 2)Z° F. In other 
words, the cooling power of ice is 140 times as great as 
that of water. 

To get at the amount of ice necessary in cooling cream 
with ice a series of tests was made with a 400 gallon 
Farrington ripener, which was carried out as follows : 
As soon as about thirty-five gallons of cream was sepa- 
rated, the ripener was set in motion and a continuous 
stream of cold water kept flowing through it until all 
the cream was separated. Further cooling was then de- 
layed for three or four hours when the ripener was again 
started and iced water allowed to circulate through it 
by means of a common rotary pump. The results thus 
secured are set forth in the following table : 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



79 



Results obtained zcith a 400 gallon Farrington Cream Ripener. 

COOLING WITH ICED WATER. 



Gallons 
cream. 



0) o 

a 
So, 



a 

c3 « 



260 


64° 


260 

260. 


5»° 
64° 


260 


61° 


260 


59° 


260. . . . 


60° 


260 


59° 


260. 


58° 


260 


66° 


260 

260. . 


58° 
58° 


260 


62° 







. 


1 0-, 


■ <w 




e 5 


So 


ao 





<U<p 


«<u 


«<u 


»- 73 


■^ u 


*3 Z . 


*^u. 


0£! 


_ 3 ^ 


^3a 

fl « t- 


3 U 


P 


r' 


" aw 


..- a^ 


as 


fe 


&- 


< 


58° 


53° 


53° 


100 


58° 


54° 


53° 


94 


58° 


54° 


52° 


105 


58° 


55° 


54° 


140 


60° 


52° 


48° 


110 


58° 


55° 


52° 


120 


60° 


53°- 


53° 


100 


60° 


55° 


53° 


70 


58° 


55° 


53° 


100 


59° 


52° 


50° 


80 


58° 


53° 


51° 


75 


58° 


54° 


52° 


100 



CO a 

ii.t 

Eh 



4n min 

45 •' 

35 " 

45 " 

35 " 

40 " 

40 " 

30 " 

45 " 

30 '• 

30 " 

40 " 



58° 



58= 






ca 



fO° 



62= 



59° 



Attention is called to the large amount of cream cooled 
in these experiments. The 260 gallons of cream repre- 
sented about 20,000 pounds of milk. Moreover, it must 
be remembered that the maximum cooling efficiency is 
not possible with the ripener more than half full as was 
the case in these experiments. 

The temperature of the cream and water in the morning 
is given to show to what extent the ripener is capable of 
holding temperature. The nights during these tests were 
moderately warm. 

With uniced water a low temperature is not possible. 
One warm day the ripener was run during the entire 
forenoon and the larger portion of the afternoon, and yet, 
after all this run, the temperature of the cream was still 
56°, and this in spite of the fact that the water was 
pumped directly from the well into the ripener. In no 
case was a temperature lower than this obtained with 



80 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the uniced water, which had a temperature of 51° to 52° 
as it entered the ripener. 

When we compare the quick cooHng with iced water 
and the slow and inadequate cooHng with uniced water, 
it is easily seen that the saving in fuel and wear and 
tear of machinery will more than cover the cost of the 
ice. Moreover, quick cooling has a very important ad- 
vantage in cream ripening. It permits the use of a large 
amount of starter which is not possible where good cool- 
ing facilities are not at hand. Using iced water makes 
it possible to have cream with the same degree of acidity 
365 days in the year, and it ig believed that the general 
use of the improved cream ripeners with ice water attach- 
ments will result in a great improvement in both the 
quality and uniformity of butter and do away with the 
dangerous practice of adding ice directly to the cream. 

DANGER OF ADDING ICE TO CREAM. 

Adding ice to the cream is a pernicious practice, both 
because of its tendency to lower the quality of the butter 
and of the danger of infecting it with disease producing 
germs. This is so because most of the ice used is more 
or less contaminated with filth and various kinds of 
germs. Moreover, a good bodied cream cannot be 
obtained where it becomes excessively diluted with ice 
water. 

Butter makers generally realize these facts but are often 
forced into the practice of adding ice to the cream because 
proper cooling facilities are not available. One of the 
contestants in our Educational Butter Scoring Test 
writes as follows: "The ice we have been using comes 
from a mill pond, a very filthy hole. I did not use it 
in the cream until July when I was oblio-ed to in order 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 81 

to get the cream cold enough. I am satisfied that is one 
reason my butter has such a poor flavor." Compare his 
scores for May and June when no ice was used in the 
cream, with those for July and August when ice was 
added. Score for May, 92^ ; score for June, 94 ; score 
for July, 87 ; score for August, 88. 

PART III. ACID TESTS FOR MILK AND CREAM. 

Butter makers who have had years of experience and 
who rank high in the profession of butter making, do not 
find it safe to rely upon their noses in determining the 
ripeness of cream for churning. They use in daily prac- 
tice tests by which it is possible to determine the actual 
amount of acid present. The method of using these tests 
is based upon the simplest form of titration. 

Titration. This consists in neutralizing an acid with 
an alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
when the point of neutrality has been reached. 

Acids and alkalies are substances that have entirely 
opposite chemical properties. The acid in milk gives it 
its sour taste, and for our purpose, illustrates very well 
what we mean by an acid. Ordinary lime may be used 
to illustrate what w^e mean by an alkali. 

When lime is added to sour milk the acid unites with 
the lime forming a neutral substance which is neither 
alkaline nor acid. If we keep on adding lime to the milk 
we reach a point at which all the acid has combined 
w^ith the lime. This is called the point of neutrality. The 
moment this point is passed is made visible to the eye 
by means of the indicator (phenolphthalein) which is 
colorless in the presence of an acid but pink in the 
presence of an alkali. One drop of alkali added to milk 
after the acid has been neutralized will turn it pink. 



82 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



In the tests used for milk and cream the alkaH used 
is sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite 
strength so that the amount of acid can be calculated 
from the amount of alkali used. 

Kinds of Tests. There are two tests in general use 
at the present time: one devised by Prof. Manns and 
^ known as the Manns' Test ; 

the other devised by Prof. 
Farrington and known as Far- 
rington's Alkaline Tablet Test. 

M ANNS' TEST. 

The apparatus used in this 
test is illustrated in Fig. 28. 
It consists of a 50 c.c. burrette, 
a 50 c.c. pipette, a small fun- 
nel, and a glass beaker with 
stirring rod. The alkali (not 
shown in the figure) can be 
bought ready made in gallon 
bottles and is labeled ''neutral- 
izer." This alkali or neutral- 
izer is made by dissolving 
four grams of sodium hydroxide in enough water to make 
one liter solution. The solution thus formed is called a 
one-tenth normal solution, each cubic centimeter of which 
contains .004 of a gram of sodium hydroxide which will 
neutralize .009 of a gram of lactic acid. 

Making the Test. Measure 50 c.c. of cream with the 
pipette into the beaker, then with the same pipette add 
50 c.c. of water. Now add five or six drops of indicator. 
Nej;t fill the burrette to the zero mark with the neutralizer 




Fig. 28.~ManQS' acid test appa- 
ratus. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 83 

and slowly run this from the burrette into the cream, 
shaking the beaker after each addition of alkali. With 
the first few additions of alkali the pinkish color pro- 
duced quickly disappears. But when the point of neu- 
trality approaches, the color disappears very slowly and 
the neutralizer must be added drop by drop only. The 
moment the cream remains pink indicates that the acid 
has all been neutralized. The number of cubic centimeters 
of alkali added to the cream is then noted, and from this 
the percentage of acid is calculated according to the 
following formula : 

No. c.c. alkali X .009 

Per cent acid = m^ ^ ^ ^^^ X 100. 

No. c.c. cream 

Example:. What is the percentage of acidity when 
30 c.c. of alkali are required to neutralize 50 c.c. of cream ? 

30 X .009 

^Q - X 100 = M%. 

From the formula it is evident that any amount of 
cream may be used for a test. But more accurate results 
are obtained by using 50 c.c. than less. Where this 
amount of cream is always used the formula may be con- 
siderably simplified. 

Thus, by dividing the numerator and denominator by 50, the 
. / No. c.c. al kali X .009 ^^ \ ^ ^^^ 

expression I ^ X 100 I becomes (No. c.c. 

alkali X .009 X 2) or (No. c.c. alkali X .018). The acidity in 
the problem above would therefore equal 30 X .018 = .54%. 



FARRIXGTON S ALKALINE TABLEl TEST. 

In the Farrington test the same alkali is used as in 
Manns', but in a drv tablet form in which it is more 



84 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



easily handled than in the liquid form. Each tablet con- 
tains enough alkali to neutralize .034 gram of lactic acid. 
Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in 
Fig. 29 and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. 
pipette, and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered graduated glass 
cylinder. 



PJPETTE 




cruiNDER. 



Fig. 29.— Farrington acid test apparatus. 



Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough 
water to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dis- 
solved, which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution 
should be vv^ell shaken and is then ready for use. The 
solution of the tablets may be hastened by placing the 
graduate in a reclining position as shown in the cut. 

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 85 

rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
number of c.c. sokition used will indicate the number 
of hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
lation of any kind is necessary. 

TESTING THE ACIDITY OF MILK. 

The acidity of milk may be determined in the same way 
as that of cream, except that the milk need not be diluted 
with water before adding the alkali. 

A Rapid Acid Test for Milk. Where milk is pasteur- 
ized it is often desirable to determine approximately the 
acidity of each lot as it arrives at the creamery. 
It has been found that milk that contains more than .2% 
acid cannot be satisfactorily pasteurized. Farrington and 
Woll have devised the following rapid method for testing 
the acidity of milk that is to be pasteurized : 

Prepare a tablet solution by adding two tablets for each 
ounce of water. When the tablets have dissolved, take 
the solution into the intake. Now, as each lot is 
dumped into the weigh can a sample of milk is taken 
with a No. 10 brass cartridge shell and emptied into a 
teacup. W^ith another, or the same. No. 10 shell add a 
measure of tablet solution to the cup. Mix the alkali and 
milk by giving the contents of the cup a rotary motion. If 
the milk remains white it contains more than .2% acid ; 
if it is colored, there is less than .2% acid present. 

Where the tablet solution is prepared as above care 
must be taken to secure equal quantities of milk and 
solution for the test. 



86 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

PRECAUTIONS IN MAKING ACID TESTS. 

1. Always thoroughly mix the cream or milk before 
taking a sample for a test. 

2. Prepare the tablet solution and dilute the cream 
with water as nearly neutral as possible. Soft water is 
better than hard. 

3. Keep the tablets dry and well bottled. 

4. Keep the Manns neutralizer and the Farrington 
tablet solution carefully stoppered with a rubber stopper, 
as exposure to the air will weaken the solutions by absorb- 
ing carbonic acid. 

5. With the Farrington tablets it is best to prepare 
a new solution every day. 

6. Make the tests where there is plenty of light so 
that the first appearance of a permanent pink color can 
readily be noticed. 

RELATION OF RICHNESS AND ACIDITY IN CREAM. 

In practice we find that the ripening is slower in rich 
than in poor cream. The reason for this is that the acid 
develops in the milk serum, which really should be used 
as the basis in measuring the degree of acidity, if this 
were possible. 

In a cream testing 25% we find that more acid must 
be developed to get the desired effects in cream ripening 
than is necessary in a 35% cream. This is so because in 
the 25 % cream we have the acid distributed through 75% 
milk serum, while in the 35% cream it is distributed 
through only 65% milk serum. 

If both the above creams show an acidity of .5%, this 
means that in the poor cream the .5 pound of acid is 
distributed through 75 pounds of serum, while in the rich 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



87 



cream it is distributed through only 65 pounds of serum, 
hence the latter must have the greater intensity of acidity. 
This may be graphically shown as follows : 



Poor cream. 




Rich cream. 


2b% fat. 




35% fat. 


75% serum. 
.b% acid. 


65% serum. 

.5% acid. 



In the illustrations above it is seen that the acid in the 
rich cream is distributed through less space than in the 
poor, hence the degree of acidity must be higher in the 
rich cream. 

We find in practice where the same results are to be 
expected from the ripening process, a 25% cream must 
show about .6% acidity, while a 35% cream, about .5%. 

In bulletin No. 24 of the Washington Experiment Sta- 
tion, Prof. Spillman gives a table showing the required 
aciditv for cream of different richness. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

STARTERS. 

The value of carefully selected cultures of lactic acid 
producing bacteria in cream ripening was first demon- 
strated by Dr. Storch, of Copenhagen, a little less than 
a decade and a half ago. Since then the use of these 
cultures has spread so rapidly that few successful cream- 
eries can be found at the present time in which they are 
not used. 

Definition. Starter is the general term applied to 
cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been 
selected artificially in a laboratory, or at creameries by 
picking out lots of milk that seem to contain these organ- 
isms to the exclusion of others. A good starter may be 
defined as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour 
skim-milk. 

The word starter derives its name from the fact that 
a starter is used to "start" or assist the development of 
the lactic fermentation in cream ripening. 

Object of Starters. Cream ordinarily contains many 
kinds of bacteria — good, bad, and indififerent — and 'to 
insure the predominance of the lactic acid type in the 
ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria 
of this type already existing in the cream by adding large 
quantities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with 
undesirable species. 

The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com- 
pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find 
plants of a desirable and undesirable character. The 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 89 

weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations 
of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated 
vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or 
suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of 
cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other 
fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The 
use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures 
a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority 
the better the product. 

Classification of Starters. The following is a classi- 
fication of the various starters in use at the present time : 

r Sour skim-milK ) r»p^i-„Y,,p 

I Sour milk... \ DesiraDie. 

f Natural -j 

Sour cream ? TTndpsirahlp 

Buttermilk \ ^ naesirabie. 



Starters. < f ^ Douglas Cultures J" Hf^c TcmhSuuvT 

I (Boston. Mass.) . . } I ^^^^ ^u^/fu^e"''"'^' 

Commercial | i, f, k--,-^v, j- ( 1. Boston Butter Culture 

L (American,... , f^^.f^X^M^,] | ^-£^Sl?,?e".'™"=- 

I Elov Errlcson (Mankato, Minn.). 

I Hansen's Lactic Ferment (Little Falls, N. Y.) 

L and a few others. 



NATURAL STARTERS. 

Sour Milk and Skim=milk. Natural starters are those 
obtained by allowing milk, skim-milk, or possibly cream, 
to sour in the ordinary way. 

The earlier methods of using natural starters consisted 
in selecting milk or skim-milk from the patrons who 
furnished the best milk at the creamery, and allowing this 
to sour by holding it over till the following day. While 
good milk could be selected in this way. the method of 
souring it was very unsatisfactory. On warm days the 
milk migrht oversour, while on cooler davs it would be 



90 CREAMER V BUTTER MAKING 

found comparatively sweet unless, a good deal of atten- 
tion was given to keeping the temperature where it would 
sour in the proper length of time. This method of 
starter making is rapidly falling into disuse. 

The most satisfactory natural starters are selected and 
prepared in the following manner : Secure, say, one quart 
of milk from each of half a dozen healthy cows not far 
advanced in lactation, and fed on good feed. Before 
drawing the milk, brush the flanks and udders of the 
cows and then moisten them with water or, preferably, 
coat thinly with vasaline to prevent dislodgement of dust. 
Then, after rejecting the first few streams, draw the milk 
into sterilized quart jars provided with narrow necks. 
Now allow the milk to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure 
atmosphere at a temperature between 65° and 90° F. 
When loppered pour off the top and introduce the sample 
wath the best flavor into fifty pounds of sterilized skim- 
milk and ripen at a temperature at which it will sour in 
twenty- four hours (about 65° F.). 

A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month 
or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur- 
ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother starter. 
Usually three or four pounds of the mother starter added 
to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim-milk will sour 
it in twenty-four hours at a temperature of 65° F. Under 
certain conditions of weather this amount may possibly 
have to be modified a little, for it is well known that on 
hot sultry days milk will sour more quickly at a given 
temperature than on cooler days. The best rule to follow 
is to use enough of the mother starter to sour the milk 
in twenty-four hours at a temperature of 65° F. 

Buttermilk and Sour Cream. If the cream has a 
good flavor, a portion of this, or the buttermilk from it, 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 91 

may be used as a starter. But in the case of unpasteurized 
cream, even though the flavor is good, there are always 
present some undesirable germs which will multiply in 
each successive batch of cream or buttermilk used as a 
starter, so that after a week's use the flavor may actually 
be bad. Where cream is slightly ofY flavored and a por- 
tion of this, or the buttermilk from it, is used as a starter, 
it will readily be seen that the taint will not only be 
transmitted but will multiply in the cream from day to 
day. The use of either cream or buttermilk as a starter 
is therefore never to be recommended. 



COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 

Commercial starters may consist of a single species 
of lactic acid organisms, but usually they are made up 
of a mixture of several species. These starters are pre- 
pared in laboratories where the utmost precautions are 
taken to keep them free from undesirable germs. The 
methods by which the good bacteria are separated from 
the bad are quite complicated and of too little practical 
value to permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to 
say that such separation is possible only with the skilled 
bacteriologist. 

Keith and Douglas each manufacture three different 
cultures which are put upon the market in liquid form, the 
liquid usually being bouillon, or beef extract, treated 
with milk sugar. The development of the germs in this 
medium is very rapid and the cultures should therefore 
not be used later than ten days after they are sent out 
from the manufacturer unless they are kept at low tem- 
peratures. The reason for this is that the rapid growth 
of the bacteria will quickly result in vast numbers of them. 



92 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

which, together with their by-products, is fatal to their 
development. 

The chief difference in the three cultures prepared by 
these men lies in the intensity of acid produced. The 
"lactic" is the most vigorous, and the "Boston" the least 
vigorous acid producing culture, while the "duplex" 
seems to take an intermediate position. Sometimes, how- 
ever, it is difficult to distinguish between these cultures. 

Erricson's culture has only recently been placed upon 
the market but is already popular. It is sent out in the 
form of a liquid which appears to consist of sterilized 
milk to which some sugar has been added. 

Hansen's lactic ferment is put up in the form of a 
powder which consists chiefly of sterilized milk with 
possibly slight additions of casein and starch. In this 
dry powdery medium the germs remain in a dormant 
condition. When held a long time in this condition their 
vitality seems to become impaired. 

Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are 
sent out in one ounce bottles which are hermetically 
sealed. The method of making starters from them is the 
same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid or 
in the dry form. 

In making the first batch of commercial starter, the 
entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim- 
milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200° F. 
for two hours, and then cooling to 80° which temperature 
should be maintained until the starter has thickened. A 
new starter is now prepared by introducing the quart of 
starter into fifty pounds of skim-milk, pasteurized by 
keeping it at a temperature of 170° to 185° for thirty 
minutes and then cooling to 65° F. All subsequent starters 
are prepared in the same way except that the amount of 



CREAMERY BUTTER ■ MAKING 93 

mother starter for inoculation must be reduced a little 
for a few days because the germs become more vigorous 
after they have propagated several days. 

In preparing the first starter from a bottle of culture 
it is necessary to have the skim-milk sterile. For if any 
spores should remain, the slow souring would give them 
a chance to develop which might spoil the starter. ]\Iore- 
over, the cooked flavor imparted by the prolonged heating 
at high temperatures does not matter in the first starter 
as this should never be used to ripen cream. The first 
and second starters prepared from a new culture seldom 
have the good flavor produced in subsequent starters. 
The cause of this in all probability is the inactive condi- 
tion of the germs and the peculiar flavor of the medium 
in which they are sent out. 

In the starters prepared later the destruction of the 
spores is not so essential as the lactic acid germs are then 
in a vigorously growing condition which renders the 
spores practically harmless. At any rate the harm done by 
them would be less than that caused by the sterilizing 
process. When milk is pasteurized at 170° to 185° F. 
for thirty minutes the vegetative germs are destroyed and 
but little cooked flavor is noticeable. 

NATURAL VERSUS COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 

Experimental tests have shown that equally good results 
can be secured with commerical and natural starters. It 
is believed, however, that the average butter maker can 
get the best results with commercial starters. Too few 
are good judges of milk and for this reason are not 
always capable of selecting the best for natural starters. 
Standard commercial cultures can be relied upon as giv- 
ing uniformly good results. 



94 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

From what has been said of the methods of preparing 
starters it must have been noticed that they are essentially 
the same for both the natural and the commercial, the 
chief difference being in the original ferment, which in 
the case of the natural starter consists of a quart of 
selected milk allowed to sour naturally, while in the com- 
mercial it consists of a bottle of culture prepared in a 
laboratory. 

USING A STARTER EVERY OTHER DAY. 

During the winter when milk is received every other 
day at creameries the ordinary method of preparing 
starters daily is, of course, out of question. There are 
two ways, however, in which starters may be carried 
along during this time. One way is to keep the starter 
an extra twenty-four hours by holding it at a temperature 
below 50° after it has' soured. The other and more 
satisfactory way is to prepare a small starter on the day 
the milk is separated ; and, in addition, to pasteurize, but 
not inoculate, the amount of skim-milk needed for the 
regular starter. This milk is repasteurized the following 
day and then inoculated from the small starter prepared 
the day previous. 

The object in repasteurizing the milk is to destroy the 
spores that have developed into the vegetative state, 

HOW TO SELECT MILK FOR STARTERS. 

It is poor practice to select starter milk promiscuously. 
The sweetest and best flavored milk should be obtained 
for the preparation of starters. Where possible the best 
plan is to select the morning's milk of one of the earliest 
patrons at the creamery and separate this first. In case 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 95 

the best milk is received toward the middle or close of the 
run, it should be carried into the creamery and separated 
by itself so as to secure the skim-milk without contamina- 
tion from other milk of inferior flavor. 

It must not be supposed that any milk may be made into 
a first-class starter by thorough pasteurization and inocu- 
lation with good cultures of bacteria. The best starters 
are possible only with the best milk. 

WHOLE MILK STARTERS. 

Where whole milk is used for making starters the cream 
should always be skimmed off before using the starter. 
Indeed it is good practice to skim off the top of any 
starter before using as the surface is liable to become 
contaminated from exposure to the air. 

ACIDITY OF STARTERS. 

It has already been stated that a starter is at its best 
immediately after it has thickened when it usually shows 
about .7% acid. It must not be supposed, however, that 
all starters are at their best when they show this amount 
of acid, because different starters thicken with different 
degrees of acidity. Nor must it be supposed that a starter 
that tends to sour very quickly is better than one that 
sours slowly. Marshall, of the Michigan Agricultural 
College, has recently found that when certain alkali pro- 
ducing bacteria are associated with the lactic acid organ- 
isms the milk sours more quickly than when the alkali 
bacteria are not present. These alkali producing bacteria, 
while they hasten the souring, produce an undesirable 
flavor. This probably explains why starters that have a 
tendency to sour very rapidly are often inferior to those 



96 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that sour less rapidly. Usually, too, starters after they 
have been propagated for some time, become intensely 
acid producing, which is probably due to contamination 
with the peculiar alkali producing bacteria. 

RENEWAL OF STARTERS. 

Under average creamery conditions it is policy to renew 
the starter at least once a month by purchasing a new 
bottle of culture. It will be found that after the starter 
has been propagated for two or three weeks bad germs 
will begin to manifest themselves as a result of imperfect 
pasteurization, contamination from the air, or from over- 
ripening, so that its original good flavor may be seriously 
impaired at the end of one month's use. It is only where 
the utmost precautions are taken in pasteurizing the milk 
and ripening the starter, that it is possible to propagate 
a starter for many weeks and still maintain a good flavor. 

VALUE OF CARRYING SEVERAL STARTERS. 

There is always some possibility of losing a starter by 
overripening or by accidental contamination which would 
deprive the butter maker of the use of a starter for several 
days. To insure against this, butter makers should practice 
carrying a few extra ones in quart cans. This has the 
additional advantage of offering some choice. The best 
is, of course, always selected for regular use. The milk 
for the small starters should be sterilized rather than 
pasteurized. 

This practice of carrying several starters is strongly 
recommended. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 97 

STARTER CANS. 

The most difficult thing in connection with starters is 
to get them just ripe when ready to use. A starter has its 
best flavor right after it has thickened. When it begins 



Fig. 30.— Haugdahl starter can. 

to show whey it indicates that the ripening has gone too 
far and should not then be used in the cream. The strong 
and curdy flavors found in butter are often directly attrib- 
utable to overripened starters. 

It becomes evident that to secure the proper acidity 
in the starter from day to day cans or vats must be used in 
which it is possible to obtain perfect control of tempera- 
ture. The improved Haugdahl starter can, shown in Fig. 
30, answers the purpose very satisfactorily. This can is 



98 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

portable and provided with a double jacket between which 
steam, hot water, cold water, or ice water may be circu- 
lated as the case may demand. It is also provided with an 
agitator which is operated by power. 



POINTERS ON STARTERS. 

1. Starters give best results when added to cream 
immediately after they have thickened. 

2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same 
effect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are 
usually the result of such starters. 

3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter, 
vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept 
under perfect control. 

4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 
since this has undergone the cleansing action of the sepa- 
rator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth of 
lactic acid bacteria. 

5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to in- 
sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable 
odors to escape. 

6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before 
inserting it in pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing process 
becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are used for 
observing temperatures. 

7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new 
starter. 

8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the milk 
has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting 
into it. 

9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after 
moculation to insure uniform ripening. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 99 

10. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick- 
ening until ready to use. 

11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used, 
the first two starters from it should not be used in cream 
as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow 
growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted 
by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A 
commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been 
propagated a week. 

12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture 
before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk. 

L.cfC. 



CHAPTER IX. 



CHURNING. 



Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat 
it was. mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,- 
000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
layer of casein that surrounds them. 

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
which we call chuniitig. In the churning of cream this 
process of coalescing continues until the fat globules 
have united into masses visible in the churn as butter 
granules. 

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 

There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
be enumerated as follows : 

]00 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING IQI 

Temperature. 
Character of butter fat. 
Acidity of cream. 
Richness of cream. 
Amount of cream in churn. 
Speed of churn. 
Abnormal fermentations. 



I. Temperature. To have the microscopic globules 
unite in churning they nuist have a certain degree of soft- 
ness or fluidity which is greater the higher the tempera- 
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best results 
the temperature must be such as to churn the cream in 
from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought about 
in different creams at quite different temperatures. 

The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 
Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
enters the churn with a richness of 30 to 35 per cent 
and an acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should 
be such that the cream will churn in from thirty to fort\- 
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 
and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 
handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
termilk can then be easily removed so that when a plug 
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
on it will be perfectly clear. 

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
cream from different sources and at different times have 
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 



102 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
of *'soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
will of course have a high melting point. Such fat may be 
quite hard at a temperature of 60° while a butter fat 
of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at 
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
chapter on milk. 

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat 
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
higher churning temperature than sweet which is of great 
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
churning temperatures. 

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
that the closer the fat globules are together the more 
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together 
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 
The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 

The ideal richness lies between 30% and 35%. A 
cream much richer than this will stick to the sides of the 
churn which reduces the amount of concussion. The addi- 
tion of water to the churn will overcome this stickiness 
and cause the butter to come in a reasonable length of 



.CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 103 

time. It is better, however, to avoid an excessive richness 
when an exhaustive churning is to be expected. 

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and cjuick- 
est churning is secured when the churn is one-third full. 
With more or less cream than this the amount of concus- 
sion is reduced and the length of time in churning cor- 
respondingly increased. 

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the churn should 
be such as to produce the greatest possible agitation or 
concussion of the cream. Too high or too low a speed 
reduces the amount of concussion. The proper speed for 
each particular churn must be determined by experiment. 

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy or ropy fer- 
mentation sometimes causes trouble in churning by ren- 
dering the cream excessively viscous. Cream from single 
herds may become so viscous as to render churning im- 
possible. At creameries where milk is received from many 
herds very little trouble is experienced from these fer- 
mentations. 

CHURNS. 

A churn is a machine in which the cream is made 
to slide or drop, or is in some way agitated to bring about 
the union of the fat globules, which changes the liquid fat 
into a solid. For many years the factory churns had 
assumed the form of a box or barrel free from any inside 
fixtures. Such churns were revolved by power and did 
very satisfactory work. But it was necessary to transfer 
the butter, after it was churned, to a worker upon which 
it was worked. 

This transfer from one piece of apparatus to another 
was obviated by the invention of ''combined" churns and 



104 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 




workers (Figs. 31 and 32) placed upon the market a little 
more than a decade ago. These are provided with 
rollers inside, which remain stationary during churning, 
but can be made to revolve when it is desired to work 
the butter. 



CREAMERY BUTTER AIAKIXG 



105 



The combined churns have to a great extent replaced 
the old box and barrel styles because of the many advan- 
tages they possess over the latter. The principal advan- 
tages may be stated as follows : 




Fig. 32.— Disbrow combined churn and butter worker. 

1. They occupy less space. 

2. Require less belting and fewer pulleys. 

3. The churn can be kept closed while working which 
keeps the warm air and flies out during the summer. 

4. The butter can be made with considerably less labor. 
A few disadvantages might be mentioned such as the 

greater original cost and the greater difficulty of cleaning 
and salting. But with proper care the butter may be 
evenly salted and the churns kept clean. 



CHURNING OPERATIONS. 

Preparing the Churn. Before adding the cream, the 
churn should be scalded with hot water and then 
thoroughly rinsed with cold water. This will "freshen" 



106 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the churn and fill the pores of the wood with water so 
that the cream and butter will not stick. 

Straining Cream. All cream should be carefully 
strained into the churn. This removes the possibility of 
white specks in butter which usually consist of curd or 
dried particles of cream. 

Adding the CoHor. The amount of color to be added 
depends upon the kind of cream, tlie season of the year, 
and the market demands. 

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 

During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
ing on dry feed. 

Different markets demand different shades of color. 
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
to which it is shipped. 

In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
the color w^ill also be uniform throughout. 

Kinds of Color. There are two classes of butter color 
found upon the market. One is a vegetable color having 
its origin in the annatta and other plants, the other is a 
mineral color, a product of coal tar. Both are entirely 
satisfactory so far as they impart to butter a desirable 
color. But from a sanitary standpoint the vegetable color 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 107 

seems to be preferred though the odor due to the vege- 
table oils has been objected to by butter experts. 

Gas in Churn. During the first five minutes of churn- 
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure 
according to Babcock "is chiefly due to the air within 
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
from the cream." 

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
granules have reached the right size, cold water should 
be added to the churn to cause the butter to float. Salt 
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off. 

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
water is used as there was cream is usually sufficient. 
When butter churns very soft two washings may be 
advantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, how- 
ever, as it removes the delicate flavor of the butter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
conducted at the Iowa station and elsewhere have shown 
that impure water seriously affects the flavor of butter. 
When the water is not perfectly pure it should be filtered 
or pasteurized. 

SALTING. 

It is needless to say that nothing but the best grades 
of salt should be used in butter. This means salt readilv 



108 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

soluble ill water and free from impurities. If there is 
much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid appear- 
ance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumbler 
of clear water. 

Rate of Salt; The rate at which butter should be 
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon 
market demands. Some markets like Boston require much 
salt in butter while some buyers in the New York market 
require scarcely any. The butter maker must cater to the 
markets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he 
does with regard to color. 

The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
lost than under others. 

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent upon : 

1. Amount of drainage before salting. 

2. Fineness of butter granules. 

3. Amount of butter in churn. 

1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
under these conditions. 

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKLXG 109 

film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
Small granules have therefore the same efifect as insuffi- 
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. 

Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
butter made in the combined churns comes close to one 
and a half ounces per pound of butter. But the rate de- 
manded by different commission men may vary from no 
salt to two and a half ounces per pound of butter. 

With the combined churns great care must be exercised 
to get the salt evenly distributed from one end of the 
churn to the other as it can not redistribute itself in the 
working. 

Brine Salting. This consists in dissolving the salt in 
w^ter and adding it to the butter in the form of a brine. 
This will usually insure an even distribution with less 
working since the salt is already dissolved. Where butter 
containing a high percentage of salt is demanded the 
method of brine salting is not practical, because it limits 
the amount that can be incorporated in butter. 

Where there is difficulty in securing an even distribu- 
tion of the salt without excessive working, an oversatu- 
rated brine may be used to advantage. Salt added to 
butter in this form very quickly dissolves and a butter 
with any degree of salt is possible. 

But it is believed that where butter is drained little and 
a somewhat higher rate of salt is used, dry salting will 
never require overworking and will insure greater uni- 
formity than is possible with brine salting. 

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and 



no CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

materially increases its keeping quality. Very high salt- 
ing, however, has a tendency to detract from the fine 
delicate aroma of butter while at the same time it tends 
to cover up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter 
maker will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his 
butter rather high. 

isalt an Absorbent. Salt very readily absorbs odors 
and must therefore be kept in clean, dry places where the 
air is pure. Too frequently it is stored in musty, damp 
store rooms where it will not only lump, but become 
impregnated with bad odors which seriously impair the 
quality of the butter. 

WORKING BUTTER. 

The chief object in working butter is to evenly incor- 
porate the salt. To accomplish this end with the least 
amount of working it is necessary to work butter twice. 

After the wash water has sufBciently drained away, the 
salt is. care fully distributed over the butter and the churn 
revolved a few times with the rollers stationary. This 
will aid in mixing the salt and butter. The rollers are 
now set in gear and the butter worked about two minutes 
to fairly incorporate the salt. After this it is allowed to 
stand not less than half an hour to allow the ^alt to dis- 
solve when the working may be finished. 

How Much to Work. Butter is worked enough when 
the salt has been evenly distributed. Just when this point 
has been reached can not always be told from the appear- 
ance of the butter immediately after working. But after 
four or six hours standing the appearance of white 
Streaks or mottles indicates that the butter has not been 
sufificiently worked. The rule to follow is to work the 
butter just enough to prevent the appearance of mottles 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING HI 

after standing about six hours. Just how much working 
this requires every butter maker must determine for him- 
self by experiment, for the reason that there are a number 
of conditions that influence the length of time that butter 
needs to be worked in a combined churn. These condi- 
tions are : 

1. Amount of butter in the churn. 

2. Temperature of the butter. 

3. Time between workings. 

4. Size of granules. 

5. Solubility of salt. 

1. Wlien there is a moderately large amount of butter 
in the churn the working can be accomplished with fewer 
revolutions than with a small amount. Satisfactory work- 
ing can not be secured, however, when the capacity of the 
churn is overtaxed. 

2. Hard, cold butter is difficult to work because the 
particles will not knead together properly. 

3. A moderately long time between workings allows 
the salt to dissolve and diffuse through the butter and 
hence reduces the amount of working. 

4. Coarse or overchurned butter needs a great deal 
of working because of the greater difficulty of distribu- 
ting the salt. 

5. A salt that does not readily dissolve reciuires exces- 
sive working and is therefore productive of overworked 
butter. With such salt the brine method of salting is 
undoubtedly preferable. 



112 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

DIFFICULT CHURNING. 

The causes of trouble in churning may l^e enumerated 
as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) low temperature, (3) 
sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of cream, (5) churn too 
full, (6) too high or too low speed of churn, (7) colos- 
trum milk, (8) advanced period of lactation, and (9) ab- 
normally rich cream. 

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of 
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming 
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
two churnings made instead of one. 

CLEANING CHURNS. 

After the butter has been removed, the churn should be 
washed, first with moderately hot water, next with boiling 
hot water containing a little alkali, and finally with hot 
water. If the final rinsing is- done with cold water the 
churn dries too slowly, which is apt to give it a musty 
smell. 

This daily washing should be supplemented once a week 
with a washing with lime water, which is prepared as 
follows: Gradually slake half a bushel of freshly burned 
lime by adding water to it at short intervals until about 
150 pounds of water has been added. Stir the mixture 
once every half hour for several hours, after which allow 
it to remain undisturbed for about ten hours. This 
permits the undissolved material to settle. The clear 
liquid is now poured ofif and added to the churn, which is 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 113 

slowly revolved for at least half an hour so that the lime 
water may thoroughly penetrate the pores of the wood. 

Nothing is equal to the "cleansing action of well pre- 
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the 
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
not so treated. 

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned 
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
alkali. 



CHAPTER X. 

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 

Butter is usually in the best condition for packing 
immediately after the second working. It can then be 
packed solidly into the packages without the vigorous 
ramming necessary when the butter becomes too cold. 
When allowed to stand in the churn some time after work- 
ing during the warm summer days, the butter will usually 
get too soft for satisfactory packing. 

There is a great variety of packages in which butter 
may be packed for the markets. These may be con- 
veniently divided into two groups : ( i ) those used for 
home trade, and (2) those designed for export trade. 

Home Trade Packages. The bulk of the butter for 
home trade is packed in ash and spruce tubs, the former 
holding 20, 30, and 60 pounds, while the latter are made 
in 10, 20, 30, and 50 pound sizes. 

Before adding the butter, the tubs must be thoroughly 
scrubbed inside and outside, the hoops carefully set, and 
then soaked in hot water for about half an hour. After 
this they are steamed for three minutes and then allowed 
to soak in cold water not less than four hours. The sides 
and bottom of the tubs are next lined with parchment 
paper which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty- 
four hours. 

The wet liners are easily placed in the tubs by allowing 
them to project an inch and turning this over the edge. 

The tubs are now weighed and the butter packed into 

114 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 115 

them directly from the churn, adding about five pounds 
at a time and firmly packing it with a wooden packer made 
for this purpose. The butter should be packed solid so 
that when stripped of its package on the retailer's counter 
no open spaces will appear in it. 

When ash tubs are used they are packed brim full 
and trimmed off level with the tub by running a string 
across the top. The tubs are then weighed and the weights 
marked on the outside, allowing not less than half 
a pound for shrinkage for a sixty pound tub. A cheese 
cloth circle is next placed over the top and an oversatu- 
rated brine is pasted upon this. After careful cleaning 
place the covers on the tubs and fasten them with not 
less than three butter tub fasteners. 

With spruce tubs the method of packing is the same 
with the exception that most markets require an even 
number of pounds in a tub, as 30 or 50 pounds. The tubs 
are, therefore, trimmed down till the required weight, plus 
half a pound for shrinkage, is reached. Some markets 
do not require the spruce tubs to be lined but it is always 
better to do so. 

Prints. Considerable quantities of butter made in 
creameries are put up in one pound oblong blocks called 
prints. Where many of these prints are made a printer 
like that shown in Fig. 33 is most serviceable. This 
makes twenty-five prints at a time. 

The prints are carefully wrapped in parchment paper 
which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty-four 
hours, and then packed in cheap wood boxes which 
usually hold about fifty of them. These boxes should be 
held not less than one day in a refrigerator before they 
are shipped. Print butter is growing in popularity. 

There are various other packages in which butter is 



116 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



packed, such as five pound crocks, gem fibre paper boxes 
lined with parchment and holding 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 
pounds, and the wooden bail boxes holding from 5 to 10 
pounds. Most of these packages are used for local trade. 




Fig. 33.— Butter printer. 



Foreign Trade Packages. For export trade butter is 
preferably packed in cubical spruce boxes lined with 
paraffin and holding 56 pounds. These boxes are pre- 
pared by rinsing them with cold brine and then lining 
with double thickness of parchment paper which has been 
soaked in strong brine. The boxes are now weighed and 
carefully packed, after which they are trimmed down to 
a weight of 57 pounds, which allows one pound for 
shrinkage. Finish the packing by placing a double thick- 



CRUAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 117 

ness of parchment paper over the top and upon this over- 
saturated brine. 

Butter shipped to tropical countries is packed in tin 
cans which are hermetically sealed. 

MARKETING BUTTER. 

The producer of any commodity is always confronted 
with the problem of finding the best markets for his 
product. Indeed his success is measured more or less by 
his ability in handling this end of the business. 

Butter makers lose thousands and thousands of dollars 
every year because they do not fully understand how to 
manage the sale of their product. They fall into the 
clutches of men without credit or credentials who ofifer 
big prices but no returns. Swindlers are always on the 
lookout for victims and every year many butter makers 
are entrapped by them. To the one who is just beginning 
to seek a market for his butter the following course of 
procedure is recommended. 

1. Find the names of three or more leading reputable 
butter firms in the leading butter markets by inquiring of 
men from whom trustworthy information may be ex- 
pected. 

2. Divide a day's standard make among these butter 
firms and instruct each to send you staten-.ent as to the 
price they can give you net (f. o. b.) at your station for 
regular shipments, the price to be based on quotations of 
some leading market. Inform them further that you are 
ready and willing to comply with their demands as to 
color, package, and salt, in future 'shipments. 

3. Ship your butter to the firm that offers you the best 
price, but do not deal with this firm exclusively. A tub 



118 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

should occasionally be sent to a new and reliable firm 
with a view to securing better prices. 

4. Remember, however, that it requires time to estab- 
lish a good trade for butter. Frequent changes from one 
firm to another are therefore undesirable. 

5. Do not sell butter on commission, but ask for prices 
f. o. b. your station, based on some market quotation like 
New York. 

6. Demand that payment shall be made for each ship- 
ment of butter within two weeks after it is sent out. 

7. Never send a firm a third shipment until the first 
has been paid for. 

8. Butter that is not up to the standard should be 
marked and the firm properly instructed regarding its 
disposition. An attempt to crowd in an inferior ship- 
ment may cost you your regular trade. 

9. Do not feel hurt when criticisms come regarding 
defects in your butter but seek to overcome them. 

10. Always allow one-half pound of butter for shrink- 
age on fifty and sixty pound tubs. If this allowance proves 
inadequate it indicates that the tubs have not been properly 
soaked or that the "house" is cutting you on weiglTts. 

11. Never contract butter for more than a year at a 
time. 



CHAPTER XL 

CALCULATING DIVIDENDS. 

I. Whole Milk. It is customary to pay for milk at 
creameries once a month. Such payment is called the 
monthly dividend. The method by which this dividend 
is calculated depends, of course, on the basis upon which 
the milk is bought. Fortunately the large majority of 
creameries now pay for it according to the butter fat con- 
tent. Milk so paid for is spoken of as being bought by the 
"Babcock test" or on the "fat basis." Since it makes 
butter in proportion to the amount of fat it contains, the 
Babcock test or fat basis is manifestly the only just way 
of buying milk at creameries. This method will be dis- 
cussed in detail. 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS ON A FAT BASIS. 

The different steps in this calculation are indicated as 
follows : 

1. Find the total pounds of milk delivered by each 
patron for the month. 

2. Find each patron's average percentage of butter fat 
for the month by averaging up the number of tests. 

3. Multiply each patron's total milk for the month by 
the average percentage of butter fat it contains, the prod- 
uct will be the total pounds of butter fat delivered. 

4. Add together all butter fat delivered by the patrons 
for the month, the sum will be the total butter fat. 

5. Determine the total gross receipts for the month 
bv multiplying each sale of butter by the price received 

119 



120 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

per pound ; the sum obtained by adding all the sales will 
be the total gross receipts. 

6. Calculate the amount charged to cover running ex- 
penses by multiplying the total pounds of butter by the 
price charged for making. 

7. Subtract the sum charged to cover running ex- 
penses from the total gross receipts, the difference will 
be the net money due patrons. 

8. The total net money divided by the total pounds 
of butter fat will give the average price per pound of 
butter fat. 

9. Each patron's share of the monthly dividend is now 
found by multiplying his total butter fat by the average 
price per pound of butter fat obtained in 8. 

To make the above steps perfectly clear let us calculate 
a monthly dividend at a creamery in which A, B, and C 
are the patrons. 

Milk Pounds. 
Date. ABC 

1. August 1 260 150 312 

August 2 255 151 300 

August 3 261 145 305 

August 31 240 162 301 

Total 8,091 4,650 9,405 

Per cent of butter fat. 
Date. ABC 

2. August 7 ZZ 4-2 2>-^ 

August 15 3.4 . 4.3 3.6 

August 23 3.4 4.2 2>1 

August 31 Z2, 40 3.6 

4| 13.4 4| 16.7 4| 14-5 
Average test. .. . 3.35 4.17 3.62 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 121 

4- 
Total milk. Ave. test. Total butter fat. 

A 8,091 X 3.35 = 27i.05lbs. 

B 4,650 X 4.17 = 193.91 lbs. 

C 9,405 X 3-^^ = 340.46 lbs. 



Total butter fat at Creamery = 805.42 lbs. 

Sales of butter. 

205 lbs. at 22, cts. = $47-15 
240 lbs. at 23.5 cts. = 56.40 
214 lbs. at 24 cts. = 51.36 
269 lbs. at 24 cts. = 64.56 



Total... 928 Total $219-47 

6. Total pounds of butter = 928. 

Price charged for making = 3 cts. per pound. 
928 X .03 = $27.84 = Amount charged to cover running 
expenses. 

7. $219.47 — $27.84 = $191.63 = Net money due patrons. 

8. $191.63 ^805.42 = $.2379 = Average price per pound but- 

ter fat. 

9. 271.05 X $.2379 = $64.48 = A's money. 
193.91 X .2379= 46.13 = B's money. 
340.46 X .2379= 81.00= C's money. 



OVERRUN. 

In a well conducted creamery the total pounds of butter 
is always greater than the total pounds of butter fat. The 
excess is called the "overrun." 

In the above problem 805.42 pounds of butter fat made 928 
pounds of butter. 

928.00 — 805.42 = 122.58 = No. pounds overrun. 
122.58-^805.42= 15.2 = Per cent overrun. 



122 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

MONTHLY STATEMENT. 

When the monthly payments are made each patron is 
presented with an envelope upon which is printed his indi- 
vidual account with the creamery and also the entire 
transactions of the creamery. A check on the nearest 
bank, or the money, is placed in the envelope and handed 
to the patron on "pay day." Below is shown such a 
monthly statement: 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 123 

Creamery Co. 



Mr. 


IN ACCOUNT WITH 






For ttie me 


M\t\\ of 






190 










No. lbs. milk delivered 


Cr. 


Lbs. butter. . 
Cans @ 


@... 


Dr. 


hv vou - . - 






Average test 
No. lbs. of bu 
Price per lb. 




Cash, 

Hauling, @.. 
per 100 lbs. 


- - . 




tter fat, . . . 










$. 




<K 










Balance due you, 


■ s = 

d at creamery, = 
ery, 

at creamery, = 
lbs. @, 


s 




Total lbs. milk delivere 






Average test at cream 






Total lbs. of Butter fat 






Sales 


' 


$ 




of 






( 






Butter. 


(( 






Less 


Cts 


. for making. 

= = = 


s 




Balance due patrons, 




Per cent, overrun 






Testing witnessed by 






















_ Prest. 
_Sec'y. 



124 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The preceding pages show the correct method of calcu- 
lating the dividend at creameries. The author has learned 
from experience, however, that it is often difficult to make 
clear to patrons how the price per pound of butter fat is 
obtained. Frequently also competing creameries are in- 
clined to cut a little on the test to increase the price per 
pound of butter fat. Where trouble from these sources 
is experienced dividends may be apportioned on the plan 
indicated on the following monthly statement : 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 12o 

Creamery Co. 



IN ACCOUNT WITH 



Mr. 



for the month of_ 



190 



Cr. 



No. lbs. milk delivered 

by you, 
Average test. 
No. lbs. of butter fat, . 



Overrun 



lbs. 



Total lbs. of butter 
Price per lb. 



Lbs. butter. 

Cans. @ 

Cash, 



Hauling, @,.. 
per 100 lbs. 



Dr. 



Balance due you, 

Total lbs. milk delivered at creamery, 
Average test at creamery, 
Total lbs. of Butter fat at creamery, 
f lbs. @ 



Sales 

i 

of ^ 

Butter. 



(( (( 



(( (( 



(( i( 



Average price, per lb. butter 

cts. for making. 

Testing witnessed by 



Prest. 

Sec'y. 



126 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

In this method the net price per pound of butter is 
used instead of the price per pound of butter fat. The 
method involves a Httle more work as each patron's over- 
run in pounds must be calculated separately. For clear- 
ness, however, we believe no other method surpasses this. 

The price of butter net to the patrons is obtained by 
subtracting the price charged for making from the aver- 
age price for which the butter has sold. This average 
price is found by dividing the total gross receipts by the 
total pounds of butter at the creamery, thus : 

Sales of butter. 

205 lbs. at 23 cts. = $47-15 

240 lbs. at 22,y2 cts. = 56.40 

214 lbs. at 24 cts. = 51-36 

269 lbs. at 24 cts. = 64.56 



Total.. 928 Total $219.47 

$219.47 -^ 928 ^ $.2365 = Average price for which butter 
was sold. $.2365 less three cents for making = $.2065 = 
price of butter net patrons. The butter fat plus overrun 
multiplied by the net price gives each patron's portion of 
the dividend. 

II. Whole Milk and Cream. Where both whole milk 
and cream are received at the creamery, the calculation 
of dividends for cream patrons differs from that for whole 
milk patrons in one point ; namely, in increasing each 
cream patron's total butter fat by 2%. The reason for 
this is that the cream patrons are credited with the butter 
fat found in the cream, while the whole milk patrons are 
credited with all the butter fat found in the milk, which 
is about 2% more than would be found in the cream from 
the same milk, 2% of the butter fat being lost in the 
skim-milk. To illustrate : 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 127 

A delivers 6,500 pounds of milk testing 4.0%. 

B delivers 600 pounds of cream testing 30%. 

A's total fat = 6,500 X .04 = 260 pounds. 

B's total fat = 600 X .30 = 180 pounds. 

To increase B's fat by 2%, we multiply 180 by 1.02 
which equals 183.6. 

In making the dividend, therefore, A is paid for 260 
pounds of butter fat and B for 183.6 pounds. 

THE TWO PER CENT — HOW CALCULATED, 

In a well conducted creamery the average loss of fat 
in the skim-milk should not be more than .078%. Dividing 
this figure by the average percentage of fat in milk, 3.9, 
we get .02. So that in the separating process .02 pound 
of fat is lost in the skim-milk for every pound of fat 
present in the milk. 

From the above calculation it will be seen that the cream 
factor (2%) would necessarily vary with the efficiency 
of skimming and the average test of the milk. To deter- 
mine what this shall be for any particular creamery divide 
the average loss of fat in the skim-milk by the average 
test of the milk at the creamery. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THEORETICAL OVERRUN. 

For the purpose of instructing patrons with regard to 
the percentage of overrun the following calculation is sub- 
mitted which incidentally involves the calculation of the 
amount of skim-milk and buttermilk to be returned from 
I GO pounds of milk, a calculation with which every but- 
ter maker should be familiar. 

I. To calculate the amount of skim-milk per lOO 
pounds of milk. 

Rule: Divide the per cent of fat in milk by the per 
cent of fat in cream and multiply the result by lOo; the 
product subtracted from lOO will be the number pounds 
of skim-milk. 

Example : How much skim-milk is obtained from lOO 
pounds of 4% milk when the separator delivers a 40% 
cream ? 

4 -^ 40 = .10, .10 X 100 = 10, 100 — 10 = 90 = 
No. lbs. skim-milk. 

Corollaries. ( i ) The richer the milk and the poorer 
the cream the less skim-milk. 

(2.) The poorer the milk and the richer the cream the 
more skim-milk. 

To allow for variations in richness of cream and small 
overweights at the creamery, 3 should be subtracted from 
the calculated amount of skim-milk. Thus in the problem 
above, the skim-milk should be distributed on the basis 
of 87 instead of 90 pounds per 100 pounds of milk as 
calculated. 

12s ' 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 129 

2. To calculate the amount of buttermilk per lOO 
pounds of milk. 

Rule: This is approximately found by increasing the 
pounds of butter fat in the cream by one-sixth and sub- 
tracting the result from the total pounds of cream. 

Example : How much buttermilk from lOO pounds of 
4% milk yielding lo pounds of cream testing 40% ? 

10 X .40 = 4.0 = lbs. of butter fat. 
4X11/6 = 4.66. 10 — 4.66 = 5.34 = No. lbs. 
buttermilk. 

Overrun. The method of calculating the actual over- 
run at creameries has already been discussed in Chapter 
XL With the following known conditions the theoretical 
overrun can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy : 

(i) Average per cent of fat in butter. 

(2) Loss of fat in skim-milk. 

(3) Loss of fat in buttermilk. 

Problem : 100 pounds of milk testing 4% yields cream 
testing 40%. Test of skim-milk is .05%, that of butter- 
milk .15%. Per cent of fat in butter is 84. Calculate 
butter and overrun. 

By applying the rules for calculating skim-milk and 
buttermilk we find that there will be 90 pounds of skim- 
milk and 5.34 pounds buttermilk. 

.90 X .05 =-.045 = lb. fat in skim-milk. 
.0534 X .15 = .008= lb. fat in buttermilk. 

Total loss = .053 
4 — .053 = 3,947 = fat made into butter. 
3.947 -i- .84 = 4.70 = lbs. butter made. 
4.70 — 4= .70 = overrun in lbs. 
.7-^4X 100=17.5 = overrun in per cent. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

DISTRIBUTION OF SKIM-MILK AND BUTTERMILK. 

In recent years much attention has been given to the 
problem of skim-milk distribution at creameries. The old 
way of weighing on a common pair of scales is too slow 
and tedious. Efforts to improve upon this method of 
weighing have resulted in bringing upon the market vari- 
ous kinds of automatic weighing and measuring devices 
such as our skim-milk weighers and check pumps. With 
the skim-milk weigher the patron drops into the machine 
a check corresponding to the amount of milk delivered, 
and the amount of skim-milk called for by the check is 
weighed or measured out automatically. In the case of 
the check pump the operation is somewhat different. A 
check is dropped into the pump and, instead of flowing 
out, the amount of skim-milk called for by the check is 
pumped out. 

Some of these skim-milk weighers are giving good satis- 
faction when properly handled. But at least fifty per cent 
of the creameries are still adhering to the old methods of 
weighing on a common platform scales which, though 
tedious, is still perhaps the most accurate method. 

Attention is here called to an automatic valve closing 
arrangement, shown in Fig. 34, which reduces the labor 
of weighing on a platform scales at least fifty per cent. 
A is a common pair of scales, B an ordinary receiving can 
with a two inch valve instead of a faucet, and C a device 
which closes the inlet valve, D, when the proper amount 
of skini-milk has run into the can. 

It will be seen that one end of the rod, C, is attached to 
130 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



131 



the beam rod of the scales, while upon the other rests the 
handle which opens and closes the skim-milk valve. When 
the beam rises the connection is broken and the weight 
of the handle closes the valve. This makes it an auto- 
matic valve. Without this device the closing of the valve 
at the right time requires a good deal of watching which 
consumes too much time. 

A skim-milk table like that shown below should be 
posted in a conspicuous place so that no time needs to be 
wasted in calculating each patron's skim-milk. 



SKIM-MLLK TABLE-85 POUNDS PER 100 
POUNDS MILK. 



Milk. 


if 


Milk. 


il 


Milk. 


11 


Milk. 


11 

'Jl 


10 


8 


110 


93 


210 


178 


310 


263 


20 


17 


120 


102 


220 


187 


320 


272 
280 


30 


25 


130 


110 


230 


195 


330 


40 


34 


140 


119 


240 


204 


340 


289 


50 


42 


150 


127 


250 


212 


350 


297 


60 


51 


160 


136 


260 


221 


360 


306 


70 


59 


170 


141 


270 


229 


370 


314 


80 


68 


180 


153 


280 


238 


380 


323 


90 


76 


190 


161 


290 


246 


390 


331 


100 


85 


200 


170 


300 


255 


400 


340 



132 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



With the automatic valve it is possible for the man who 
weighs in the milk also to weigh out the skim-milk with 
little additional work. The device is unpatented and costs 
not more than one dollar. Attached to an ordinary plat- 




Fig. 3-t.— Apparatus for distributing skim-milk and buttermilk. 

form scales, it furnishes with them an ideal skim-milk 
weigher which is cheap, simple, accurate, and needs no 
repairs. 



butte:rmilk distribution. 



To insure a just distribution of buttermilk at creameries 
it is necessary to either weigh or measure it out to the 
patrons. The long cylindrical can, X, shown at the left 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 133 

in Fig. 34, illustrates a very convenient and satisfactory 
measuring device. The measuring is done by means of a 
long hollow shaft, N, which consists of two boards be- 
tween which a pointer, M, is made to slide. Attached to 
the pointer is a string which passes over pulleys, O and P, 
and ends in the buttermilk can where it is attached to a 
wooden disc floating on top of the buttermilk. As the 
buttermilk flows into the can the disc rises, causing the 
pointer to sink in the shaft. Marks on the shaft indi- 
cate the number of pailfuls measured out. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

BUTTER JUDGING. 

Expert butter judges, like great musicians, are "born" 
not "made." A good musician must be born with a good 
ear, a good butter judge with a good nose. Most people, 
however, can become fair musicians with proper training, 
and the same may be said of butter judges. 

By repeated judging and comparing of different sam- 
ples of butter one will soon become able to make fair 
discriminations. The important point to learn is to know 
an ideal butter when you see it. A butter maker can 
not expect to reach or even approach an ideal butter un- 
less he has the ideal fixed in mind. 

One can learn much about butter judging by daily ex- 
amining his own make. But to become expert, he must 
be able to compare his score with that of recognized 
experts. Dairy conventions and butter scoring tests offer 
excellent opportunities for such comparison. 

BASIS FOR JUDGING. 

Butter is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points 
for flavor, 25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 
for package, total 100. 

Flavor. Strictly speaking flavor means taste. But 
the use of the term flavor in butter judging usually in- 
cludes both taste and aroma, the emphasis resting on the 
latter. Aroma is the odor noticeable when a sample of 
butter is held close to the nose, hence frequently called 
^'nose" aroma. 

134 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 135 

It is difficult to describe an ideal butter flavor. It may, 
perhaps, be likened to the flavor of clean, uncontaminated, 
well ripened cream, that is, it should be rich and creamy. 

Texture. This includes three distinct things: (i) 
grain, (2) body, and (3) brine. 

An ideal grain is indicated by a somewhat granular 
appearance when a piece of butter is broken, an appear- 
ance quite similar to that of the broken ends of a steel 
rod. 

Body refers to the consistency of butter. In other 
words, it refers to its degree of firmness or its ability 
to "set up" well at ordinary temperatures. 

Brine refers to the amount and character of the water 
in butter. It should be as clear as water and not present 
in such quantities as to run off the trier. 

Color. The essential thing in color is to have it 
uniform. It should have a little deeper shade than that 
produced by June pasturage. Artificial coloring is there- 
fore necessary. 

Salt. As with color, the essential thing with salt is to 
have it evenly worked through the butter and none of it 
should remain undissolved. 

Package. Butter should be well packed and the top 
covered with cheese cloth and saturated brine. The 
package should be neat and clean and in no way mutilated. 

BUTTER SCORE CARDS. 

The score card contains the ''score" or judgment as 
given by the judge. In commercial judging of butter a 
score card is used which is quite similar to the one given 
below. 



136 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

BUTTER SCORE CARD. 

Name ■. 



Sample. 


No. 


1 


2 


3 












Flavor 


45 
25 
15 
10 

5 


40 


38 


36 












Texture 


23 


23 


23 












Color - 


15 


14 


14 












Salt 


10 


10 














Package 


5 


5 


































Tots! - 


100 


93 


90 


87 













Date. 



Judge. 



In such scoring no attempt is made to point out the 
particular defects any further than to indicate the number 
of points for each sample. The total number of points 
determines the class to which the butter belongs. Thus 
in the score card above, sample No. i grades as ''extras," 
sample No. 2 as ''firsts," and sample No. 3 as "seconds." 

At dairy conventions and in educational butter scoring 
tests the object in judging is not so much to determine the 
score of the butter as to point out as nearly as possible the 
causes of any defects and to suggest remedies for over- 
coming them. The score card used in this case is shown 
on the next page. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 
BUTTER SCORE CARD 



137 



No. 





45 

25 

15 


o 
o 

" i 

1 i 


bi : 

a 

li 




f Curdy. 
1 Light. 

Rancid. 

Fishy. 

Feverish. 

Oily. 

Weedy. 

Stable. 
t Unclean. 

Poor grain. 




Flavor. 














. 


Texture 






Cloudy brine. 
1 Weak body. 
1 Too much brine. 

f Mottles. 

1 

1 White specks. 

Too high. 












Color 










10 

5 












. Too light. 

Too much salt. 
(Undissolved.) 
Poor salt. 
^ Lacks salt. 

' Dirty. 
Poorly packed 
Poorly nailed. 
Poorly lined. 




Salt 
















Package 








Total 


100 









Remarks 



Judges 



Bate. 



138 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

A brief discussion of the defects indicated on this score 
card is given below : 

FLAVOR. 

Curdy flavor is caused by overripened starters or add- 
ing starters to cream while the latter is at too high a 
temperature. 

Light flavor is generally due to churning cream too 
sweet. It may be due also to too much washing and to 
the character of the feed. It is well known that good suc- 
culent June pasturage produces a higher flavored butter 
than average dry winter feed. 

Rancid flavor is due chiefly to overripened cream. The 
age of the milk, cream, and butter is also frequently the 
cause of rancidity. Good butter exposed to light and air 
at ordinary temperatures turns rancid in a very short 
time. 

feverish flavor is noticeable principally in the spring 
of the year when cows are turned out on pastures and is, 
no doubt, due in most cases to the sudden change from 
dry feed to luxuriant pasturage. It is possible that this 
feverish or grassy odor is due partly to the grass itself and 
partly to a feverish condition of the cow caused by the 
sudden change of feed. We find that any feverish condi- 
tion of the cow will manifest itself in the milk and the 
products therefrom. 

Oily flavor may be caused by churning and working 
butter at too high a temperature, or by keeping the milk 
and cream at high temperatures. Bacteriologists claim 
that certain species of bacteria have the power of im- 
parting an oily flavor to butter. 

Weedy flavors are caused by cows feeding on weeds. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 139 

Leeks or wild onions are frequently the cause of very 
serious trouble when cows have free access to them. 

Fishy flavor has been shown to be due to certain species 
of bacteria and possibly to enzymes. By inoculating good 
cream with cultures of these germs the fishy flavor may 
be produced at will. This flavor has also been ascribed 
to poor salt. 

Stable flavor is caused by lack of cleanliness in milking, 
and by keeping milk too long in, or near, a dirty stable. 

Unclean flavors are caused by dirty pails, strainers, 
and cans, filthy creamery conditions, and general unclean- 
liness in the care and handling of milk. 

TEXTURE. 

Poor grain is caused by overworking and overchurn- 
ing ; also by too high temperatures in churning and work- 
ing. 

Weak body is usually caused by employing too high 
temperatures in the entire process of manufacture, in- 
cluding the ripening of the cream. These high tempera- 
tures usually result in overripened cream, overchurned 
butter and consequently butter with too high a water con- 
tent. The character of the butter fat also influences the 
body of the butter. 

Too much brine is caused chiefly by underworking and 
by churning to small granules. 

Cloudy brine is caused by churning at too high a tem- 
perature and also by granulating too coarse. Insufficient 
washing has a tendency to produce a cloudy brine. 

COLOR. 

Mottles are discolorations in butter caused by the un- 
even distribution of salt. Those portions of the butter 



140 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that contain the most salt will have the deepest color 
because of the attraction of salt for color. Mottles can 
always be removed from butter by working, but frequently 
the conditions are such as to require overworking to 

secure this end. The following are conditions 

that favor mottles : 

1. Coarse uneven grained salt. 

2. Carelessly adding the salt to the churn. 

3. Butter too cold for working. 

4. Using too cold or too warm wash water. 

White specks are due either to curd particles 
in cream caused by overripening and lack of 
stirring during ripening, or to dried and hard- 
ened cream. 

SALT. 

Undissolved salt may be due to three things : 

1. Poor salt. ' 

2. Too much draining before salting. 

3. Salting the butter at too low a tempera- 
ture. 




SAMPLE F'OR SCORING. 



I In judging butter only a small sample is 

necessary which is secured by inserting a 
"trier" (Fig. 35) into the butter and giving it 
^IFA^~ a whole turn, after which the plusf of butter 

But t e r ' r o 

trier. j-^ay be rcmovcd. 



CHAPTER XV. 

LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES. 

The creamery industry has had a marvelous growth 
during the past decade and at no time in its history has 
it been in a more healthy, flourishing condition than 
it is at the present time. This growth has been the result 
of a gradual change in agricultural methods, necessitated 
chiefly by the need of conserving the fertility of lands now 
under cultivation. As our lands become older, an agri- 
cultural practice that will have for one of its objects the 
preservation or restoration of soil fertility, must grow 
more and more imperative. We have, therefore, much 
assurance that the creamery industry will flourish in the 
future as it has in the past, and that the creamery has 
come to stay as a permanent institution. The same care 
and attention should therefore be given to the location 
and construction of creameries that is now given to our 
schools, churches, and other institutions. 

CREAMERS LOCATION. 

In deciding upon the location of a creamery, we should 
carefully consider the following points : ( i ) the number of 
cows in the community; (2) the slope necessary to insure 
good drainage; (3) the center of the milk producing 
territory; and (4) the supply of pure water. 

(i.) Before building a creamery we must first ascer- 
tain the number of cows available for its support. There 
should be an assurance of not less than 400 cows in a 

141 



142 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

radius of five miles of the creamery to start with. Too 
frequently creamery "promoters" are the cause of cream- 
ery failures because the creamery has been placed in a 
territory containing too few cows. 

(2.) The ground upon which the creamery stands 
should slope at least one foot in ten. This amount of slope 
is necessary for two reasons : (a) to secure sufficient drain- 
age, and (b) to permit the construction of a creamery 
with an ideal interior and exterior arrangement, such as 
will do away with extra can lifting, and extra pumps 
and piping. 

(3.) Locations far removed from railroad stations are 
undesirable. It makes transportation to and from the 
station too expensive. Besides, during the summer the 
butter is liable to get too warm before it reaches a refrig- 
erator car. 

(4.) Pure water is absolutely indispensable to the suc- 
cess of a creamery. Experiments have abundantly demon- 
strated that butter washed with impure water will be 
inferior in flavor and particularly poor in keeping 
quality. 

CREAMERY CONSTRUCTION. 

The following cuts illustrate a creamery constructed of 
brick with galvanized iron roof, making a creamery that 
may be considered fire proof. These plans have been 
drawn up with special reference to : I. Sanitation ; II. 
Saving of labor; III. Durability; IV. Cost. In the con- 
struction of all creameries attention must be directed to 
these four points. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



143 



!otH^ 



ql 



^ 



»=' 1=1 t—i I 



© 



TESTING 



^ 



RECEIVING VAT 



CREAM RIPCI 



06' 




:B 



CHURN AND 
WORKER. 



f 



ICE STORAGE. 



-36-S" 



^ 



P^^ 



^ STORAGE. 




1=^ \ ^ 1 



Fig. 36.— Ground plan. 



1. Skim-milk can. 

2. Receiving- can. 

3. Buttermilk can. 

4. Test table. 
5; Tester. 

6. Office desk. 

7. Baih tub. 

8. Skim-milk pump. 

9. Skim-mi k can. 

10. Rack for apparatus. 



11. Wash sink. 

12. Ice water pump. 

13. Ice water tank. 

14. Buttermilk pump. 

15. Ventilator. 

16. Intermediates. 

17. Blower or ventilating fan. 

18. Butter printer. 

19. Wash sink. 



144 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 




Fig. 37.— Longitudinal section. 




Fig. 38.— Rear view 




Fig. 39.— Front view. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 14S 

n 




Fig. 40 —Side view. 




Fig. 41.— Side view. 



I. SANITATION. 

In a place where human food is manufactured sanita- 
tion should be of first importance. But unfortunately 
in too many creameries this is made an entirely secondary 
issue. 

Creamery sanitation brings into consideration (i) the 
disposal of sewage; (2) the construction of floors and 
walls; (3) facilities for cleaning; (4) the construction 
and placing of pipes and 'machinery; (5) methods of 
ventilation; and (6) the bath room. 



146 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



I. Sewage. The disposal of waste or sewage from 
creameries is often a serious problem, especially with 
those creameries that cannot discharge their sewage into 
flowing water. The best means at our disposal at the 
present time is the method of sewage purification. This 
consists essentially of a septic tank, or germ incubator. 




Fig. 42.— Septic tank. 



in which the waste is oxidized or decomposed by the 
action of bacteria. This scheme is illustrated in Fig. 42. 
The tank, A and B, is divided by a water-tight parti- 
tion which extends to within six inches of the top, making 
in reality a double tank. It is located in the ground 
below the frost line and may be constructed of brick, 
stone, or cement, with capacity sufficient to hold all 
of one day's waste in division A. Here the larger 
portion of the organic matter is oxidized or decomposed 
by the action of bacteria. When the next day's waste 
begins to flow into the tank, the partially decomposed 
sewage flows through the discharge pipe into tank B, 
where the purification is completed by further oxidation. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 147 

The discharge pipe at E withdraws the Hquid from near 
the bottom when the water rises above the elbow, M, 
leaving the sediment and flocculent material undisturbed, 
to be further decomposed by the continued action of the 
bacteria. The object is to hold the coarse undissolved 
material in tank A, and for this reason this tank is also 
divided by a partition, the coarse material being mostly 
held in the first section. 

The tank should be built air tight, except in two places, 
C and D. At C is an air inlet, consisting of a goose-neck 
pipe, which renders the vent or air outlet at D more 
effective. This vent consists of a long shaft extending 
beyond the top of the creamery, thus carrying off the 
foul gases caused by the decomposition of the material 
within the tank. 

■ The liquid from tank B should be conducted away by 
means of 6-inch drain tile laid underground. This liquid 
will not give rise to bad odors after undergoing the 
process of purification herein explained. 

Creameries that have a scanty water supply use the 
water from the cream vats for the boiler. But where 
there is an abundant supply, the water used for cooling 
is run into the sewer. 

The water pipe, xy, is connected with the starter can 
and cream ripeners which makes it possible to conduct 
all water used for cooling directly into the drain at K. 
This water requires no purification and, if conducted 
through the septic tank, would necessitate one of too 
large dimensions. Moreover the large amount of cold 
water needed for cooling starter and cream would cool 
the contents of the tank too much for a rapid decomposi- 
tion of the organic matter within. 

Where the soil permits the drain may be emptied into a 



148 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

network of tile laid a suitable distance below the sur- 
face. The arrangement of tile is shown in G. 

For an ordinary creamery a tank eight feet square 
and four feet deep will be large enough, provided the 
water used for cooling is not run into it. 

2. Floors and Walls. Wood floors because of their 
porous nature and tendency to rot should never be placed 
in creameries. They are not sanitary. Well constructed 
cement floors are durable and easy to clean and are 
recommended for all creameries. Frequently objections 
are raised against cement floors because of their damp- 
ness. This tendency to dampness can easily be over- 
come by constructing the floor on a cobble stone and 
cinder foundation underlaid with drain tile. 

The inside wall of a brick building should be finished 
partly with cement and partly with matched lumber or 
paint. From the floor to a height of at least four feet, 
the wall should be finished with good cement. The rest 
is finished either with good building paper and matched 
lumber nailed on 2 in. x 4 in. studding, or by simply 
painting the walls. Plaster finish is undesirable because 
of its tendency to crack and drop off, due to moisture 
and jar of the machinery. The junction of wall and floor 
should be well filled in with cement to permit easy 
cleaning. 

3. Facilities for Cleaning. Ample facilities should 
be provided for steaming and scalding with hot water. 
Every sink should be provided with a suitable steam 
jet. A tank providing hot water should be located in 
the boiler room and elevated so that hot water can be 
conducted to the churn, butter printer, and vats. Butter 
ladles, packers, and printers cannot be satisfactorily 
steamed and should therefore receive liberal treatment 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 149 

with hot water. A few coils of piping in the bottom 
of the hot water tank through which the exhaust steam 
from the engine can be conducted will furnish all the 
hot water necessary. This tank should be covered and 
provided with a vent to permit the escape of steam 
during excessive heating of the water within. 

4. Creamery Machinery. In selecting creamery ma- 
chinery, we should be largely guided by the ease with 
which it can be cleaned. A piece of machinery that 
cannot be properly cleaned is a positive damage to the 
creamery. Only tinned ironed pipes should be used for 
conducting milk, and these should be in sections not 
longer than four feet. Rubber hose should never be used 
for this purpose. The machinery should be located so as 
to require the least possible amount of piping. Extra 
piping means extra cleaning and consequently more work. 
The seams, corners, and sharp angles in all cans, vats, 
and conductors should be flushed with solder. 

5. Ventilation, Hitherto this subject has received 
little or no attention whatever from creamery builders. 
The influence of foul, moist air upon the quality of the 
butter and the general health of the butter maker is too 
little appreciated. We hear much about that "peculiar 
creamery odor" which is simply another expression for 
the foul, moist, stifling air that prevails in a great many 
of our creameries. Almost daily we learn of butter 
makers who are forced into retirement or compelled to 
take up other lines of work because of lung trouble, 
rheumatism, or general ill health. Unsanitary creamery 
conditions are held accountable. 

Ventilating shafts, extending from the creamery room 
to the top of the building where they end in cupolas, are 
serviceable but inadequate for the best ventilation. The 



150 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

most effective ventilator with which the author is ac- 
quainted is installed in the Michigan Dairy School. This 
ventilator consists of a galvanized iron pipe fifteen inches 
in diameter which is suspended from the ceiling. The pipe 
starts from the middle of the creamery room, where it 
is ejxpanded into a cowl five feet in diameter, and is 
placed right up against the ceiling. It ends in a fan or 
blower four feet in diameter which is located in the boiler 
room. Here the blower connects with a chimney extend- 
ing from the floor through the roof of the building. The 
fan is so run that it will suck the air from the creamery 
room into the ventilating pipe whence it is discharged 
into the chimney. With a speed of two hundred revolu- 
tions per minute the air of an ordinary creamery room 
can be changed six to eight times per hour. Less than 
one horse power is required to run the fan. 

Sucking the air out of the room will, of course, neces- 
sitate an inlet of air from the outside. A two-inch screen 
under a few windows will answer this purpose very well. 

The cost of pipes and blower will not exceed $125, an 
amount that should be no consideration where the health 
of the butter maker and the quality of the butter are at 
stake. This ventilator is shown in Fig. 36. 

6. Bath Room. Some, no doubt, will look upon a 
bath room as a novelty and luxury rather than as a neces- 
sary adjunct to the creamery. But where everything 
needs to be kept so scrupulously clean, it must be im- 
portant for the butter maker and his assistants to keep 
themselves clean also. The sweaty smell of the butter 
maker can certainly have no favorable effect upon his 
produce, so sensitive to all odors, nor upon his own pre- 
cious health. A light daily bath after the work is done 
can not fail to add much to the comfort and health of the 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 151 

butter maker and his helpers. The bath room will add to 
the sanitary aspect of the whole creamery and will teach 
the patrons an object lesson in personal cleanliness in the 
care and handling of their milk. 

II. SAVING OF LABOR. 

There are two general plans upon which creameries 
have been constructed in the past. One is known as the 
gravity plan, the other as the one floor plan. In the 
gravity plan the milk flows by gravity from the intake 
to the separator, thus dispensing with the use of a milk 
pump. It necessitates, however, two floors on a difl'erent 
level ; one for the receiving vat, the other, five feet lower, 
for separators and cream vats. In the one floor plan all 
vats and machinery stand on one floor, the milk being 
forced into the separators by means of a pump. 

The chief objection to the gravity plan is that it neces- 
sitates the climbing of high steps, which makes going 
from one floor to the other difficult and tiresome. Yet, 
five years ago, such steps were preferable to the unsani- 
tary milk pumps then in use for elevating the milk into 
the separators. With the vanishing of the old unclean- 
able milk pumps and with the advent of the air pumps 
for forcing cream into the churn, vanish the chief objec- 
tions that have always been raised against the one floor 
creamery. Our present sanitary milk pumps can be 
cleaned as readily and thoroughly as our milk and cream 
vats. Moreover our combined milk heaters and milk 
pumps constructed on the principle of the Reid pasteurizer 
are practically vats which can be cleaned without the 
slightest difficulty. Then, too, v/ith our modern cream 
vats, the air pumps permit the raising of the cream into 
the churn by means of power. But even if this were not 



152 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

possible it would still be easier to put the cream into the 
churn by hand than climb steps many times a day, which 
is not only tiresome but requires time. The one floor 
plan is, therefore, much to be preferred to the gravity 
plan, because of the greater convenience it affords. Fig. 
2,y shows a section through a creamery constructed upon 
the one floor plan. In drawing these plans the item of 
labor saving has been constantly kept in mind. Particular 
attention is called to the following points : 

1. Creamery dimensions. 

2. Intake. 

3. Intake, testing room, and office. 

4. Machinery. 

5. Location of refrigerator and ice house. 

1. Creamery Dimensions. These should be such as 
not to crowd the machinery, nor to leave a great deal of 
unnecessary space. Where the machinery and vats are 
placed too close together they cannot be conveniently 
cleaned and attended to. On the other hand, too much 
space means extra steps, extra pipes and conductors, and 
added cost to the creamery, to say nothing of the addi- 
tional cleaning. 

2. Intake. Nowhere in the creamery can so much 
labor be economized as in the intake when properly con- 
structed. The author can state from years of experience 
at the intake, handling from 10,000 to 15,000 pounds of 
milk daily, that the work in a poor intake is by far the 
hardest that falls to the lot of the butter maker. Where 
cans weighing from 100 to 200 pounds have to be raised 
one or two feet to get them from the wagon onto the 
platform, and then three feet more to get them emptied 
into the weigh can, the amount of work necessarv in 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 153 

weighing in 15,000 pounds of milk is easily imagined. 
Intakes of this type are numerous. 

On the other hand, an intake that dispenses with all 
this can lifting offers comparatively easy work. Fig. ^y 
illustrates such an intake. The top of the wagon box 
is on the level with the platform. The can, after 
reaching the platform is dumped without practically any 
lifting. When ten gallon cans are used (and these are 
always preferred) and a moderately strong boy draws the 
milk, the butter maker need not step upon the platform 
at all. He smells of every can before it is dumped, weighs 
and samples the milk, and distributes the skim-milk and 
buttermilk. Any creamery that is located where there 
is a moderate slope can have an intake like that here 
referred to with the little extra cost of the platform. 

3. Intake, Testing Room, and Office. Instead of 
having the testing room in some corner remote from the 
intake, these two rooms should adjoin, with a door open- 
ing from one into the other. This facilitates carrying 
the composite bottles to the testing room. Here the 
record of the last test made should be conspicuously 
posted so that those patrons who choose may "drop in" 
and compare their tests Vv^ith others of the creamery. The 
office is naturally placed next to the testing room so that 
all tests as soon as made can at once be placed upon 
record in the office. The testing room, office, and bath 
room are on the same floor with the separators, vats, etc. 

4. Machinery. All machinery shown in Fig. 36 is so 
placed as to require the least amount of pipes and con- 
ductors for conveying the milk, cream, and skim-milk into 
their proper places. In many creameries this is a matter 
almost entirely overlooked. Pipes are very difficult to 
keep clean and should therefore be used as sparingly as 



154 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

possible. Wherever permissible open conductors should 
be used in preference to pipes. The cream should be run 
through an open conductor from the ripener to the churn. 
When the air pump is used the end into which the cream 
is pumped should be closed about two feet to prevent the 
cream from spattering out. 

Particular attention is called to the combined heater and 
milk pump. Where a heater like the Reid pasteurizer is 
used no pump is required to elevate or force the milk into 
the separators. Such a machine will elevate the milk to 
practically any height desired. It is easily cleaned, seldom 
out of repair, heats the milk evenly and gradually, and 
requires no over-flow for milk as is the case with milk 
pumps. It is true, however, that the original cost of such 
a machine is somewhat greater than that of a separate 
heater and pump, but the ease in cleaning and the saving 
in repairs, floor space, and pipes more than compensate 
for this extra cost. 

In addition to serving as an ordinary heater and pump, 
such a pasteurizer may serve another and most impor- 
tant purpose, namely, that of a milk pasteurizer. Indeed, 
it is to be recommended that the milk be heated to the 
pasteurizing temperature before entering the separators 
whenever weedy or nearly frozen milk is received at the 
creamery. Our experience has shown that running milk 
through the separator at temperatures between i6o° and 
i8o° F. has three distinct advantages: 

a. Increases the efficiency of skimming. 

b. Eliminates weedy flavors 

c. Destroys bacteria. 

a. Efficiency of Skimming. During the past two 
winters careful tests were made at our dairv school to 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 155 

determine the effect of sudden heating of cold milk on the 
loss of fat in the skim-milk. It is well known that the 
exhaustiveness of skimming with any separator is greatly 
influenced by the manner in which the milk is heated. In 
general very sudden heating has the effect of diminishing 
the difference in the specific gravity between the fat and 
milk serum, consequently rendering the separation of the 
fat from the milk more difficult. 

In our experiments we found that in many instances 
where the milk was received in a partly frozen condition 
and suddenly heated to a separating temperature of 80° 
to 85° F., the loss of fat in the skim-milk was from .08% 
to .12%. When, however, such milk was suddenly heated 
to a temperature of 160^ F. or above the loss of fat in the 
skim-milk was from .02% to .03%. 

b. Eliminating Weedy Flavors. In our experience 
nothing has been found so effective in eliminating bad 
odors from milk as the separation of same at high tem- 
peratures. High temperatures in themselves have a tend- 
ency to evolve from milk undesirable odors so frequently 
present, especially during the weedy season. When the 
high temperature is assisted by the whirling motion to 
which milk is subjected in a cream separator, the power 
of eliminating odors is increased. This can readily be 
proved by carefully examining the air or gases that issue 
from the cream and skim-milk spouts. 

c. Destroys Bacteria. Pasteurizers are placed upon 
the market as bacteria destroyers. In our experiments 
with the Reid machine no bacteriological tests were 
made. Repeated scoring of the butter showed, however, 
that when ordinary milk was used the quality was im- 
proved from two to four points by pasteurizing. 

Bacteriological tests with the Reid pasteurizer are re- 



156 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

ported in the 15th Annual Report of the Wisconsin Ex- 
periment Station. In two samples of milk reported the 
bacterial content per cubic centinieter was as follows : 

Unpasteurized 9,095,000 

Pasteurized 661,000 

Unpasteurized 9,780,000 

Pasteurized 600,000 

From these results it will be seen that the efficiency of 
the Reid pasteurizer as a germ destroyer is very marked. 

One objection that has always been raised against 
separating milk at the pasteurizing temperature is that it 
will quickly clog the separator. While this is undoubt- 
edly true with very ripe milk, our results with a De Laval 
separator have shown that little or no trouble is experi- 
enced from clogging when the milk does not contain over 
.2% acidity. 

A zvord zvith regard to the steam engine. It has been 
the custom heretofore to place the engine in the same 
room with the boiler. This is undesirable because of the 
coal and flue dust settling in the bearings of the engine. 
The engine should be placed in the creamery room and 
as near as possible to the boiler. If all steam packings are 
properly attended to and the exhaust steam from the 
cylinder properly conducted away, the engine will not 
give rise to any "oil smell" that would be objectionable 
in a creamery. 

5. Location of Refrigerator and Ice House. It is 
a great mistake to have the ice house detached from the 
creamery. Where this is the case much unnecessary 
labor has to be performed in filling the refrigerator. The 
ice house and refrigerator should adjoin with only a 
well built wall between them. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 157 

III. DURABILITY. 

The best and most permanent creameries are con- 
structed of brick. They are the most sanitary, and cheap- 
est in the long rim. The original cost may be somewhat 
greater than that of a frame building but the insurance 
and repairs are considerably less. A brick creamery with 
galvanized iron roof, cement floors, and the walls partly 
of cement, is practically fire proof. Fires occur too fre- 
quently in creameries to permit their construction without 
regard to protection against fire. Indeed scarcely a week 
passes but that from one to three creameries are burned 
to the ground. In Denmark, the great butter producing 
country, the creameries are nearly all constructed of brick. 

A good solid cement or stone foundation also adds 
much to the durability of a creamery building. 



158 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

IV. COST OF the; creamery building illustrated in 

FIGS. 36 TO 41. 

(Capacity 20,000 pounds.) 

Cost of foundation $100.00 

No. brick 83.050 at $6.00 per M 498.30 

Laying brick, 42 days at $3.00 per day. . . . 126.00 

60 bbls. cement at $2.00, for floor 120.00 

Cost of laying floor 20.00 

Cost of cinders and cobble stones for floor 

foundation 20 . 00 

2,640 sq. ft. corrugated iron roofing at $3.00 

per 100 sq. ft 79 . 20 

Cost of laying roofing 26.40 

5,630 sq. ft. siding at $20.00 per M 112.60 

Labor 50 . 00 

1,815 sq. ft. ceiling at $20.00 per M 36.30 

Labor 20 . 00 

1,920 sq. ft. sheeting at $14.00 per M 26.88 

1,920 sq. ft. P. & B. 3-ply water and acid 

proof paper at $12.00 per M 23.04 

Labor 15.00 

1,322 ft. 2 in. X 4 in. studding; 2,408 ft. 

2 in. X 8 in. joists; 2,388 ft. 2 in. x 6 in. 

rafters ; at $17.00 per M 104.00 

Labor 30 . 00 

Septic tank and drain 25.00 

Total $1,432.64 

No doors and windows are considered here, as the 
material above mentioned was calculated on solid walls 
with no openings. The cost of doors and windows will 
not be more than that of so much solid wall ; the total 
cost ..here given may, therefore, be considered the com- 
plete cost of the building. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 159 



COST OF CREAMERY MACHINERY. 

25 H. P. boiler $325.00 

15 H. P. engine 200.00 

2 separators 900 . 00 

400 gal. cream ripener 300.00 

Receiving vat 45 • 00 

Skim-milk weighing outfit 75-00 

Intake scales 18.00 

Salt and butter scales 5 . 00 

Receiving can 8 . 00 

Starter vat 20 . 00 

Skim-milk pump 10.00 

Buttermilk pump 10.00 

Rotary water pump 10.00 

600 gal. churn and worker 250.00 

Butter printer 25 . 00 

Blower and ventilator 125.00 

Shafting 35-00 

Babcock tester 25 . 00 

Bath tub 5 . 00 

Pipes and conductors 40.00 

Skim-milk tank 15-OO 

Buttermilk tank 10.00 

Hot water tank 15.00 

Cold water tank 15- 00 

]\Iilk heater and pump 100.00 

Belts and pulleys 70.00 

Cream scales 10 . 00 

Pails, butter ladles, dippers, etc 20.00 

Wash sinks and rack for utensils 10.00 

Ice water tank 5 . 00 

Office desk 10 . 00 

Soldering outfit 6 . 00 

Tool chest and tools 50.00 

Testing tables and glassware 10.00 

Cost of putting up machinery 100.00 

Skim-milk pasteurizer 25 . 00 

Total $2,902.00 



160 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The total cost of creamery building and machinery as 
shown by the foregoing figures is $4,334.00. This repre- 
sents the cost of a model brick creamery with a capacity 
of 20,000 pounds of milk daily. A creamery with half 
this capacity would cost about three-fourths this amount 
or $3,250.50. 

In the foregoing discussion on creamery equipment 
nothing has been said about cream pasteurizers and cream 
coolers. While it can not be expected that in a few years 
all creameries will make pasteurized butter, yet this 
method is daily gaining favor and is to be recommended. 
Creameries that intend to make pasteurized butter should, 
therefore, add not less than $125 to the cost of the equip- 
ment to allow for a pasteurizer and cream cooler. 

re;frige:rator. 

Instead of placing the ice at the end or sides of the 
refrigerator as is ordinarily done, it is much more desir- 
able to place it overhead. With ice so placed it is possi- 
ble to secure a much drier and cooler air. This method 
of refrigerating is illustrated in Fig. 43. 

From the cross section it will be noticed that 2 in. by 
4 in. studding are placed across the entire width of the 
refrigerator. These studding are only one inch apart, 
and are laid from the rear to within two feet of the 
front of the refrigerator. The ice chamber is constructed 
on top of the studding. Below the chamber is a very shal- 
low tin pan which catches the drip from the melting ice 
and conducts it into the sewer. This pan is supported 
by means of three 2 in. by 4 in. studding running the 
full length of the ice chamber. Both ends of the studding 
are provided with hooks by means of which the pan is 
readilv attached to, and detached from, the ice chamber. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



161 



This method of attaching is necessary because the tin 
pan will need to be taken down occasionally for cleaning. 




Fig. 43.— Sections through refrigerator. 



Where the refrigerator is built in one corner of the ice 
house, as shown in Fig. 36, it should be filled with the ice 
farthest away from it. This gives the refrigerator the 
benefit of the cold produced by the ice surrounding it. 

The floor and walls of the refrigerator should be 
finished with good cement and the ceiling lined with 
galvanized iron. 



162 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

THE ICE HOUSE. 

A creamery should preferably face north and south 
so that the ice house may occupy the north end where 
it will be least affected by the heat of the sun. 

Good drainage is another matter of importance in the 
construction of an ice house. This can be secured with 
any kind of soil by laying an eight inch foundation of 
cobble stones and gravel, and on top of this six inches 
of cinders, the whole underlaid with drain tile. The floor 
of the ice house is constructed upon this foundation. For 
this purpose cheap lumber in the form of planks should be 
used, leaving enough space between the planks to permit 
a ready escape of the water from the melting ice. 

The walls of the ice house should be so constructed as 
to insure good insulation. The brick wall that forms the 
outside of the ice house should have 2 in. by 4 in. studding 
built into it on the inside, upon which good building paper 
is tacked and this covered with good ceiling lumber. 

The wall between the creamery room and the ice house 
should have the following construction : For uprights use 
2 in. by 6 in. studdings placed 14 inches apart. Cover the 
outside and inside of the studding with cheap sheeting, 
filling the six inch space with cinders, sawdust, or tan 
bark. Now finish the outside as follows: (i) tack good 
building paper on the sheeting; (2) nail i in. by 2 in. 
strips on the paper; (3) tack paper on strips; (4) cover 
with matched lumber. Finish the inside wall in the same 
way. This will give two thicknesses of paper and a one 
inch dead air space on either side of the six inch space 
filled in. The paper used should be the best water and 
acid proof paper obtainable. Common building paper will 
not prove satisfactory. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 163 

The walls of the refrigerator are built in the same way 
except that the inside is finished with cement as already 
mentioned. 



CREAMERY ROOF. 

It matters not whether the creamery is constructed 
of wood or brick, a shingle roof is undesirable because 
of the danger from fire. Twenty-six gage galvanized 
iron, when properly laid, will make a cheap and very 
durable roof. The roofing should be laid with stand- 
ing seams to allow for expansion and contraction of 
the material. To protect the under side of the roof 
from moisture and corroding gases it is desirable to lay 
the galvanized iron on common building paper. 

Slate makes the neatest and most durable roof but it is 
rather expensive. 

HEATING OF CREAMERY. 

Creameries should be heated with steam, not with 
stoves. Either the exhaust steam from the engine or 
steam taken directly from the boiler may be used for 
this purpose. The heating pipes should be so arranged 
that either may be used when desired. 

Where the exhaust steam is used to heat water for the 
boiler and for washing, it may be best to heat the build- 
ing with steam taken directly from the boiler. 

A very satisfactory method of piping is the following : 
Run one and a half inch pipes from the boiler to within 
two feet of the floor, and close to the walls, of the 
creamery room. The pipes should pass all around the 
creamery room and end in a steam trap which discharges 
the condensed steam into a hot well located near the 



164 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

injector, so that the hot water may readily be drawn 
into the boiler. The heating pipes must all slope towards 
this well. Where the boiler floor is lower than the 
creamery floor an oil barrel sawed in two may be made 
to serve the purpose of a hot well. 

A reducing valve should be placed near the boiler so 
that any amount of pressure may be carried in the heat- 
ing pipes. With a good valve of this kind a pressure 
as low as one pound may be carried when the boiler 
pressure varies from twenty to fifty pounds. 

The cost of steam trap and reducing valve should not 
exceed $15. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CREAMERY MECHANICS. 
THE STEAM BOILER. 

There are three principal types of boilers in use at the 
present time: (i) water tube boilers; (2) internally fired, 
or marine, boilers; and (3) fire tube boilers. 

In the water tube boiler the water circulates through 
tubes which receive the heat directly from the furnace. 
These tubes communicate with an iron cylinder, placed 
directly over them, which serves the purpose of a steam 
reservoir. Boilers of this type are rapidly gaining favor 
as economical steam generators. They occupy somewhat 
more space, however, than the other types of boilers. 

In the marine boiler, the firing is done in the shell, the 
entire fire box being surrounded by water. The return 
heat passes through a series of tubes which nearly sur- 
round the upper half of the fire box. The entire boiler 
consists of a round iron cylinder supported on short legs. 
It is heavily covered with asbestos which dispenses with 
the brick work necessary with the fire tube boilers. 

The marine boiler is neat and attractive and has grown 
much in popularity in recent years. As its name implies 
this t}pe of boiler has been mostly used on the sea, but 
is now to be seen nearly everywhere in power plants. 

The common form of creamery boiler belongs to the 
fire tube kind. Fig. 44 illustrates this boiler partly laid 
in brick. The grates, or iron bars, upon which the fire is 
placed are seen in the front half of the brick work. The 

165 



166 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 




CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



167 



heat and smoke pass along the underside of the boiler 
toward the rear and return through the fire tubes. To 
prevent radiation of heat the brick work must be built 
up to cover the entire boiler. The fire box must be con- 
structed of the best fire brick. 



Fig. 45.— Glass 
gauge. 



\^\ 



H' 



Fig. 46.— Gauge 
cocks. 



The various boiler accessories will be described in the 
following paragraphs. 

Glass Gauge. This is a glass tube attached to the 
side of the boiler to indicate the height of the water in 
it. The gauge is represented in Fig. 45. It is so attached 
that its lowest point is about two inches above the highest 
part of the fire line of the boiler, its entire length being 
usually about fifteen inches. The cock at the bottom is 
used to blow out the sediment that is liable to block the 
opening between it and the boiler. When this occurs 
the gauge becomes a false indicator. Frequent blowing 
out is therefore necessary. The cock next to the blow 
out admits the water from the boiler. The cock above 
this admits the steam. When the glass breaks shut ofif 
the water first, then the steam. Always have a few extra 
glasses on hand so that the broken one can be immediately 
replaced. Owing to its tendency to clog, the gauge can 



168 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

not always be relied upon, hence the use of water cocks 
placed next to the glass gauge. 

Water Gauge Cocks. Fig. 46 shows the attachments 
of these cocks. The water level should be kept as near 
as possible to the middle cock. It should never go below 
the lower cock, nor above the upper. These cocks should 
be opened many times during the day and so long as 
steam issues from the upper and water from the lower 
cock, the water level is all right. 

Steatn Gauge. This shows the number of pounds of 
steam pressure per square inch on the boiler by means 
of a pointer moving around a dial. Below the dial is a 
loop which contains water to prevent injury to the gauge 
from the hot steam. The steam gauge is liable to get 
out of order and will then fail to show the true pressure. 
Such a condition is indicated by the safety valve. 

Safety Valve. This is placed on top of the steam 
chamber and permits the escape of steam when the steam 
pressure reaches the danger limit. It is an indispensable 
boiler attachment as without it the boiler would be a 
dangerous thing. There are two kinds of safety valves, 
the "pop" and "ball and lever" types. The former is 
considered the more desirable because it is not so easily 
tampered with. Both can be set to blow off at different 
pressures.- 

Water Feed Apparatus. There are two ways of feed- 
ing water into a boiler, namely, with injectors and with 
pumps. 

Injector. This important boiler accessory, illustrated 
in Fig. 47, is attached to the side of the boiler. It utilizes 
the steam directly from the boiler for forcing water into 
it against a pressure as great as that which sends it forth. 
The principle which makes this possible may be stated 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



169 




Fig. 47.- injector. 



as follows : Steam issuing from a boiler under 70 pounds 
pressure has a velocity of 1,700 feet per second. When 
steam with this high velocity strikes the combining tube 
A, it produces suction which in turn induces a flow of 
water. As soon as the water enters the combining tube 
it is given motion bv the high velocity of the steam, 



170 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

which immediately condenses and moves with the water 
into the boiler at a comparatively low velocity. The 
energy, therefore, by which steam can force water into the 
boiler against its own pressure is the latent heat resulting 
from the condensation of the steam in the combining 
tube. 

From this it must be evident that the efficiency of the 
injector is dependent upon the completeness with which 
the steam condenses. This is clearly proved by every 
day practical experience. When, for instance, the feed 
water is too hot, the steam pressure too high, or the 
steam is wet, the injector fails to work properly because 
the steam does not sufficiently condense when it strikes 
the feed water. 

Starting the Injector. This is done by opening the 
supply water valve one or two turns, then the steam valve 
wide. If steam issues from the overflow^ admit a little 
more water; if water overflows admit less. 

Care of Injector. An injector will become coated 
with sediment or scale the same as the boiler and must, 
therefore, be frequently cleaned. This is best done by 
immersing it in a solution of one part muriatic acid and 
ten parts water. Allow to remain in this solution until 
the scale becomes soft enough to permit washing out. A 
clean injector rarely causes trouble but if trouble does 
occur it may be due to: (i) low steam pressure; (2) too 
hot water; (3) leaks in pipes and injector; (4) clogging 
of water pipe; (5) wet steam; (6) poor working condi- 
tion of check and overflow valves; (7) clogging of feed 
pipe where it enters the boiler. 

The injector is commonly used to feed water into the 
boiler because it is cheap and simple, and occupies little 
space. 

Pumps. There are two kinds: (i) those run with 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 171 

steam directly, and (2) those run by the engine. The 
latter is the more economical and handles hot water with 
less trouble. It has one disadvantage, however, and that 
is it does not work unless the engine is running. With 
good pumps, especially those run by the engine, good 
work may be expected when the feed water has been 
heated to 200° F. with the exhaust steam from the engine. 
With the injector such high temperatures are not per- 
missible, hence the greater economy of the pump. The 
great saving of fuel' by feeding water hot into the boiler 
is illustrated by experiments made by Jacobus which 
show that with a direct' acting pump 12.1% fuel is saved 
by heating the feed water from 60° to 200° before pump- 
ing it into the boiler. With injectors the feed water used 
usually has a temperature of about 60° F. 

STEAM, 

Water is practically a non-conductor of heat. This 
means that it cannot conduct its heat to its neighboring 
particles. When, therefore, heat is applied to the bottom 
of a vessel containing water, the particles at the bottom 
do not communicate their heat to the particles next above 
them, but expand and rise, cool ones taking their places. 
This gives rise to convection currents which tend to equal- 
ize the temperature of the water in the vessel. When the 
water has reached a uniform temperature of 212° F. the 
particles begin to fly off at the surface in the form of 
vapor, and this we call steam. To generate steam in a 
boiler, then, it is necessary to impart to the water in it 
a considerable amount of heat, which is produced by 
burning fuel in the fire box. 



172 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

FIRING OF BOILER. 

The immense amount of heat stored in wood and coal 
is rendered effective in the boiler by burning (combus- 
tion). To understand how to fire a boiler intelligently we 
must first learn what the process of burning consists of. 

Process of Burning. Anything will burn when the 
temperature has been raised high enough to cause the 
oxygen of the air to unite with it. Thus, in "striking" 
a match the temperature is raised high enough by the 
friction produced to cause the match to burn. The burn- 
ing match will produce heat enough to ignite the kind- 
ling, which in turn, produces the necessary heat to ignite 
the wood or coal in the fire box of the boiler. Burning 
may, therefore, be defined as the union of the oxygen of 
the air with the fuel. In burning a pound of coal or wood 
a definite amount of air must be admitted to furnish the 
necessary oxygen for complete combustion. When oxygen 
is lacking part of the fuel passes out of the chimney un- 
burned in the form of gases. If, on the other hand, too 
much air is admitted the excess simply passes through 
the chimney, absorbing heat as it passes through the 
boiler. The problem of firing becomes, therefore, a diffi- 
cult one. 

Burning Coal and Wood. When hard coal is burned 
the fire should be thin. A thickness of three to four 
inches on the grates gives very satisfactory results. For 
best results with soft coal a thickness of six to seven 
inches is recommended. Whenever fresh coal is added 
it should be placed near the front and the hot coals pushed 
back. 

In case wood is burned the fire box should be kept well 
filled, care being necessary to keep every part of the grate 
well covered. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 173 

GENERAL POINTERS ON FIRING. 

1. Boilers newly set should not be fired within two or 
three weeks after setting and then the firing should be 
very gradual for several days to allow the masonry to 
harden without cracking. 

2. Never fire a boiler before determining the water 
level by trying the water gauge cocks. You can not 
entirely rely upon glass gauges, floats, and water alarms. 

3. When starting the fire, open the upper water gauge 
cock and do not close it until steam begins to issue from 
it. This permits the escape of confined air. 

4. Kindle the fire on a thin layer of coal to protect 
the grate bars. 

5. Always examine the safety valve before starting a 
fire. 

6. When starting the fire all drafts should be open. 

7. The firing should be gradual until all parts of the 
boiler have been heated. 

8. Never allow any part of the grate bars to become 
uncovered during firing. 

9. Frequently clean the ash pit to prevent overheating 
of grates from the hot cinders underneath. 

10. The coals upon the grates should not be larger 
than a man's first. 

11. Remember that firing up a boiler rapidly is apt to 
cause leaks. 

12. Remember that too little water in the boiler causes 
leaks and explosions. 

13. Remember that soot and ashes on heating surfaces 
always waste fuel. 

14. When fire is drawn close dampers, and doors of 
furnace and ash oit. 



174 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

15. Never open or close valves when the water is too 
low in the boiler, but immediately bank the fire with ashes 
or earth. Opening the safety valve at such a time will 
throw the water from the heated surfaces, resulting in- 
overheating and possibly in explosions. 

16. Use the poker as little as possible in firing. 

17. Keep the grate bars free from "clinkers." 

18. When the steam pressure goes too high, start the 
pump, open the doors of the furnace and close the ash 
pit. 

19. A steady and even fire saves fuel. 

GENERAL CARE OE BOILER. 

1. Always close the steam and water valves of the 
glass gauge when you leave the building for half an 
hour or more. 

2. Water gauges should frequently be blown out and 
cleaned. 

3. Keep the exterior of the boiler dry. Moisture will 
corrode and weaken it. 

4. The boiler should be blown off under low pressure 
every two or three days. 

5. A boiler that is not used for some time should be 
emptied and dried. If this cannot readily be done, fill 
it full of water to which a little soda has been added. 

6. Frequently examine the safety valve to see that it 
is in good working order. 

7. Do not empty boiler while brick work is very hot. 

8. Never pump cold water into a hot boiler. Leaks 
and explosions may be the result. 

9. Leaky gauges, cocks, valves, and flues should be 
repaired at once. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 175 

10. Do not fail to examine the pressure gauge fre- 
quently. 

11. It is good policy to have two means of feeding a 
boiler. The pump or injector may get out of order and 
cause delay and danger. 

12. Feed pumps and injectors need frequent cleaning 
to keep them in good working order. 

13. Look out for air leaks. If air is admitted any- 
where except through the grates serious waste may re- 
sult. Such leaks are to be looked for in broken doors and 
poor brick work. 

14. Flues should be cleaned often, especially if soft 
coal is burned. This will prevent over heating of metal, 
at the same time save fuel. 

15. Do not allow filth to accumulate around the boiler 
or boiler room. 

16. Keep all the bright work about the boiler ''shiny." 

17. Do not fail to empty the boiler every week or two 
and refill with fresh water. 

18. Have your steam gauge tested at least twice a 
year. 

BOILER INCRUSTATION. 

In all boilers after a period of use, there is deposited 
upon the parts below the water level a scale or sediment 
known as boiler incrustation. 

Cause of Scale. The formation of scale is due to 
the impurities contained in the feed water. When impure 
water is fed into the boiler the impurity first manifests 
itself in the form of scum on top of the boiling water. 
The heavier particles of the scum slowly unite and sink 
to the bottom where they first appear as mud. By con- 
tinued exposure to high temperature, this mud gradually 



176 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

forms into a hard impervious scale which usually con- 
sists largely of lime. 

Objection to Scale, i. The excessive formation of 
boiler scale is the immediate cause of most boiler explo- 
sions. The scale acts as a non-conductor of heat, so that 
in cases w^here the capacity of the boiler is severely taxed, 
the metal becomes overheated, thus materially weakening 
it. The scale is, therefore, not only dangerous, but by 
overheating the metal, also materially shortens the life 
of the boiler. 2. Another most serious objection to scale 
is its wastefulness of fuel. This becomes evident when 
we note that the heat before reaching the water must first 
be conducted through a non-conducting layer of incrusta- 
tion. 

Prevention of Scale. Since nearly all water used for 
boilers is more or less impure, it is evident that to prevent 
scale, boilers must receive frequent cleaning. How often 
this needs to be done is, of course, dependent upon the 
amount and character of the impurity in the water. Boilers 
are kept clean in three different ways : ( i ) by blowing off 
at .low pressure, (2) by cleaning through man hole, and 
(3) by using boiler compounds. 

( I.) By blowing the boiler off at low pressure most of 
the mud will be blown out. But care must be taken 
that the pressure is not above ten pounds and that there is 
no more fire in the fire box, otherwise the mud, instead 
of flowing out with the water, will bake on and form 
scale. 

(2.) A good way of removing mud is to allow the 
boiler to cool off and then run a rubber hose through the 
man hole. By working the hose and forcing water 
through it the sediment can be removed. 

(3.) Boiler compounds are used to keep boilers free 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 177 

from scale. The kind of compound to be used is deter- 
mined by the character of the impurities of the water. 
Most creameries use well water for the boiler and the 
chief impurity in this is lime. The best compound for 
water of this kind is soda, ^^'ell water contains the lime 
in widely different proportions. In order, therefore, to 
ascertain the proportion of soda to feed water the fol- 
lowing method is recommended by Hawkins : 

"i. Add one sixteenth part of an ounce of soda to a 
gallon of the feed \vater and boil it. 2, \\^hen the sedi- 
ment thrown down by the boiling has settled to the bottom 
of the kettle, pour the clear water off and add one-half 
drachm of soda to this. Now, if the water remains clear, 
the soda which was put in has removed the lime. But 
if it becomes muddy, the second addition of soda is neces- 
sary." In this way the amount of soda to be added to 
the feed water can be calculated with sufficient accuracy. 

Tan bark is very efficient in removing boiler scale but 
may injure the iron. 

Kerosene answers the same purpose but renders the 
steam unfit for use in the creamery. 

When the water is salt or acid, a piece of metallic zinc 
occasionally placed in the boiler will prevent corrosion. 
Water of this kind can usually be told by its corrosive 
effect on copper and brass. Acid water can also be de- 
tected with blue litmus paper, which it turns red. 

WET AND DRY STEAM. 

Wet steam. This is steam holding In suspension 
extremely small particles of water which are thrown off 
from the water surface while steam is generating. The 
following are the causes of wet steam : 



178 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

1. Impure water in the boiler. 

2. Too much water in the boiler. 

3. Too little evaporating surface for the amount of 
steam used. This is one of the chief objections to upright 
and too small boilers. 

4. Violent agitation of the water in the boiler caused 
by too rapid a generation of steam. 

Wet steam causes ''priming" and is wasteful of heat. 

Dry Steam. This is saturated steam holding no water 
mechanically in suspension. High steam pressure and a 
large steam space above the water level are conducive 
to dry steam. 

HORSE POWER 01'' BOILERS. 

A horse power of a steam boiler is thirty pounds of feed 
water at a temperature of 100° F. converted into steam 
in one hour at 70 pounds gauge pressure. 

The horse power of a boiler may be approximatelv 
calculated by dividing the total square feet of heating 
surface in the shell, heads, and tubes, by fifteen. 

SMOKE STACK. 

It is difficult to state the exact size of a smoke stack 
for a given boiler because conditions vary so much. It 
is evident that it must be longer for a boiler placed at the 
foot of a hill than for the same boiler placed on top of 
the hill. 

A smoke stack for a 25 H. P. boiler should be about 
one foot square inside and from 30 to 40 feet high and 
built of brick. A small smoke stack which affords in- 
adequate draught is wasteful of fuel and gives rise to 
much trouble in firing. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



179 



THE STEAM ENGINE. 

The engine may be defined as a machine which con- 
verts heat into mechanical power. This heat is obtained 




in the form of steam under pressure from the burning 
fuel in the boiler. A common form of creamery engine 
is illustrated in Fig. 48. 



180 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Engine Foundation. The engine to run smoothly 
must be placed upon a solid foundation constructed of 
hard burned brick laid in cement. Where the ground 
is soft and loose the brick work must be built upon a 
foundation of coarse stones laid in cement. 




TU 



Fig. 49.— Steam cylinder and valve chest. 



PARTS OF THE i:NGINE. 

Steam Cylinder and Valve Chest. These are the 
vital parts of the engine. A section through the cylinder 
and valve chest is shown in Fig. 49. A represents the 
cylinder part,- B the valve chest. 

Parts of A: i, cylinder heads; 2, bore of cylinder; 
3, counter bore ; 4, flanges ; 5, stuffing box ; 6, gland. 

Parts of B : 7 and f, steam ports ; 8, exhaust port ; 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



181 



9, valve stem gland ; lo, valve stem stuffing box ; ii, valve 
chest cover; 12, steam inlet; 13, slide valve. 

Working of Piston. The arrows in the preceding cut 
show the course which the steam takes in the valve chest 
and cylinder. As the steam enters at port 7' the piston is 



^ PISTON RlNd 




Fig. 50.— Piston and ring. 



pushed back and the exhaust steam escapes through port 
7. The slide valve 13 gradually moves forward while the 
piston moves back so that both ports will be closed when 
the piston has traveled about four-fifths of the distance 
of the cylinder. There is, however, enough energy stored 
in the fly wheel or drive pulley to carry the piston 
beyond the dead center when steam will enter the cylinder 
through port 7, causing the piston to move forward while 
the exhaust steam escapes through port 7\ When the 
piston has traveled about four-fifths of the distance of the 
cylinder both ports are again closed, so that at every revo- 
lution of the crank the dead center is passed twice. 

Fig. 50 shows the piston and piston ring. 

The piston must fit the cylinder tight enough to prevent 
leakage of steam, yet not so tight as to cause undue 



182 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



friction. A good way to find out whether a piston leaks 
steam is to put the engine on the dead center on the 
crank end. Then take off the cyHnder cover on the head 
end and admit steam back of the piston. If the piston 
leaks, steam may be seen escaping between the packing 
ring and the wall of the cylinder. 




Fig. 51.— Connecting rod end. 



Crosshead. This connects the piston rod and connect- 
ing rod and serves to guide the former so as to have 
it move in a straight line. 

Connecting Rod. This forms the connection between 
the crosshead and crank. The crank end of the rod is 
shown in Fig. 51. i represents the crank pin key; 2, 
crank brasses, and 3, burr that fixes the crank pin key. 

Crank. This rotates the shaft of the engine and per- 
mits the change of rectilinear into circular motion. 

Eccentric. This forms a sort of crank which, as its 
name implies, does not turn around a true center. It 
opens and closes the steam ports in the valve chest by 
means of the eccentric rod which forms the connection 
between it and the slide valve. 

Setting the Slide Valve. The slide valve should be 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 183 

so set on the valve stem that its edges will pass each 
steam port an equal amount during a full revolution of 
the engine. If not so set, the valve should be moved, by 
loosening the nuts on the valve stem, until the correct 
position is reached. 

The next thing to do is to place the engine on its true 
center with the outward stroke. Now turn the eccentric 
upon the shaft in the direction in which the engine is to 
run until the valve has uncovered the port sufficiently for 
the required lead, which should be about one-sixteenth 
of an inch. 

Governor. This device governs or regulates the speed 
of the engine by controlling the inlet of steam in to the 
cylinder. 

There are two kinds of governors : one is known as the 
automatic cut-off which consists of centrifugal weights 
placed in the fly wheel, which vary the point of cut-oft" 
by revolving the governor eccentric upon the shaft. With 
governors of this kind the steam is entireh' cut off when 
the speed gets too high, while with the other form of gov- 
ernor the steam is throttled. The "throttle" or "ball" 
governor is more common on creamery engines than the 
automatic cut-off. Fig. 52 illustrates the working of the 
ball governor. The important parts are : i , governor 
balls; 2, pulley; 3, stem; 4, valve discs; 5, stuffing box; 
and 6, valve seats. As the speed of the engine increases 
the balls are thrown farther out and the valve discs come 
nearer the valve seats, thus throttling or reducing the 
amount of steam that enters the cylinder. 

The automatic cut-off is considered the more economi- 
cal of the two governors though it is somewhat more 
difficult to regulate. Most engines now made are of the 
automatic cut-off type. 



184 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 




Fig. 52.— Governor. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



185 



Lubricator. This device serves to supply oil to the 
cylinder. There are various forms of lubricators one 
of which is illustrated in Fig. 53. The working of this 
lubricator may readily be understood by following the 
course of the steam as indicated by the arrows. 

The steam condenses in the 
small pipe, enters the bottom 
of the oil cup where the con- 
densed steam displaces an 
equal quantity of oil, which, 
being lighter than water, is 
forced up and overflows into 
a pipe placed inside the lubri- 
cator whence it may be seen to 
escape" in drops through the 
glass tube. From'here it pass- 
es with the steam into the 
cylinder. 

Pipes and Piping. The 
main pipe is that which con- 
ducts the steam from the boiler to the engine. This pipe 
should be well covered with non-conductor to prevent 
loss of heat. 

A very efficient and inexpensive pipe covering is made 
by mixing wood sawdust and common starch, using them 
in the proportion to form a thick paste. Such a paste will 
adhere perfectly to wrought or cast iron pipes when ab- 
solutely free from grease. A thickness of one inch is 
sufficient. 

The exhaust steam pipe carries away the steam after it 
has been used in the cylinder. To make the best use 
of the heat that remains in exhaust steam, this pipe 
should first be carried through a water tank located in the 




Fig. 53.— Lubricator. 



186 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

boiler room, thence outside the building. The exhaust 
steam will be ample to heat all the water needed for 
washing as well as that used for the boiler. A great deal 
of fuel can be saved in a creamery by properly utilizing 
the exhaust steam. A drip cock will have to be placed 
at the bottom turn of the exhaust pipe to permit drain- 
ing it. 

When the engine is placed in the creamery proper, it is 
very essential to have cylinder drain pipes to carry away 
the water and partially condensed steam that is found in 
the cylinder when the engine is started. 

In piping avoid turns as much as possible and provide 
exhaust pipes of ample size. 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ENGINE. 

1. It is essential to have all parts of the engine well 
oiled, using nothing but the best oil. 

2. Keep the engine clean. The shiny parts should be 
brightened at least once a day. 

3. Keep the engine well "keyed up." At both ends 
of the connecting rod are keys, one of which is shown in 
Fig. 51. The purpose of these keys is to keep the brass 
boxes tight enough to prevent undue play. The ''keying" 
consists in loosening the burrs next to the key and then 
tapping the latter lightly until the unnecessary play is 
taken up. Care must be taken, however, not to get the 
brasses too tight or a hot box will be the result. "Pound- 
ing" is usually caused by not having the keys properly 
set. It is also caused by wet steam and water in the 
cylinder. 

4. Keep stuffing boxes carefully packed to prevent 
leakage of steam. The packing should be treated with 
graphite or good cylinder oil and packed firmly around 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 187 

the rod, but it must not be too tig^ht, otherwise power 
is lost in friction. If the rod has become scored or rusty, 
smooth it with emery cloth before packing. 

5. The packing- rings in the piston should be kept in 
good repair. The clicking noise sometimes heard in 
cylinders is due either to the packing ring wiping over 
the edge of the counter bore or to its being too narrow 
for the groove in which it is placed. A ring is needed 
that fits this groove properly. If the packing ring is too 
small for the cylinder bore it should be set out by peneing 
or by tightening the setting out bolts. 

6. When gumminess is noticeable in any of the bear- 
ings, remove same with benzine and use a purer oil. 

7. When the engine "races" look for the trouble in 
the governor. 

8. Thoroughly drain cylinder when not in use. This 
must be done in the winter to prevent freezing. 

horse: power of engine. 

The horse power of an engine is calculated from the 
following: formula : 



^t> 



^^ ^ p X 1 X a X n . 

H- p- = — mm — ^^ ^^^^^ 

P = Mean effective steam pressure. 
1 = length of stroke in feet, 
a = area of piston in square inches. 
- n = number of strokes per minute. 
H. P. = Horse power. 
33,000= Number of foot-pounds. 

A foot-pound is one pound raised through one 
foot of space. 

Length of stroke = twice the length of crank. 
No. of strokes per min. = twice the number of 
revolutions. 



188 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

c ■ -^^^ 

Area of piston = -j-- 

Example : 

P = 40 lbs. 

1 = 2 ft. 

a = 20 sq. inches. 

n = 400. 

40 X 2 X 20 X 400 = 640,000 
640,000 -^ 33,000 = 19.4 = H. P. 

CALCULATING SIZE AND SPEED OF PULLEYS. 

In creameries where new shafting and new machinery 
are being put up, it is important to know how to determine 
the required speed of the shafting as well as the speed 
and size of the pulleys. This calculation is not difficult 
when we remember the following rule: 

The speed varies inversely with the diameter of the 
pulley. Thus, with the same speed of the engine, the 
speed of the main shaft becomes less as the diameter of 
the pulley on that shaft is increased. 

It must be remembered, also, that in a creamery where 
the churn and separators are run directly from the main 
shaft, the speed of this shaft must be fixed at from 175 to 
200 revolutions per minute in order to permit the use of 
suitable sized pulleys. 

We usually speak of two kinds of pulleys: the drive 
pulley and the driven pulley. Where the engine drives the 
main shaft the pulley on the engine is called the drive 
pulley and that on the main shaft the driven pulley. When 
we refer to the main shaft driving the intermediate, then 
the pulley on the main shaft becomes the driver and that 
on the intermediate the driven pulley. 

In creameries there are two problems that present them- 
selves with respect to pulleys : one is to find the speed of 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 189 

the pulley when the diameter is given ; the other is to find 
the diameter when the speed is given. 

I. To find the speed of a driven pulley : IMultiply the 
diameter of the driver by its speed and divide the product 
by the diameter of the driven pulley. 




Fig. 54.— Belting from engine to separator. 

Example : Diameter of engine pulley, 20 inches ; speed 
of engine, 200 revolutions per minute ; diameter of driven 
pulley, 25 inches. 

20 X 200-^25 = 160= No. rev. per min. of driven pulley. 

2. To find diameter of driven pulley: Multiply the 
diameter of driver by its speed and divide the product 
by the required speed of driven pulley. 

Example : Diameter of engine pulley, 20 inches ; speed 
of engine, 200 revolutions per minute; speed of driven 
pulley, 200 revolutions per minute. 

20 X 200 ^ 200 = 20 = diameter of driven pulley. 



190 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Let us calculate the size and speed of pulleys neces- 
sary to run a separator 6,000 revolutions per minute 
when the following conditions are knovv^n : Size of drive 
pulley on engine, 16 inches; size of separator pulley, 3 
inches; size of large pulley on intermediate, 18 inches; 
size of small pulley on intermediate, 5 inches; speed of 
shaft, 180 revolutions per minute. 

The known conditions given here are indicated in the 
diagram above by figures, the unknown by x (Fig. 54). 

The calculation in this problem begins at the separator, 
where both the speed and diameter of the pulley are 
known, and ends with the determination of the speed of 
the engine. 

1. Determine the speed of the intermediate which has 
a large pulley at one end and a small one at the other. 
Applying the foregoing rules, the speed of intermediate 
is equal to : 

6000x3-4-18 = 1000 rev. per min. 

2. Determine diameter of pulley on main shaft. This 
is equal to: 

1000x5-f-180=27.7 inches. 

3. Determine speed of drive pulley on engine. This 
is equal to: 

180X27.7^16=312 rev. per min. 

With most engines a great range of speed is possible 
by regulating the governor. It is better, however, to have 
the drive pulley of such size as to keep the speed under 
300 revolutions per minute. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 191 

FRICTION : ITS ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE. 

The resistance produced by one body sliding over 
another is called friction. No matter how smooth a sur- 
face may appear it always contains irregularities (molec- 
ular) which are not imlike the teeth of a saw, though so 
small as to render them invisible to the naked eye. When- 
ever, then, two surfaces are put together they inter- 
lock and when made to slide over each other produce 
friction. 

Friction as Applied to Belts. Practical application 
of friction is made in transmitting power by means of 
belts. Without friction such transmission would be im- 
possible. The highest efficiency of belts is obtained where 
there is no slipping or stretching, conditions made possi- 
ble by observing the following points : 

1. Use only good leather belting. 

2. Avoid too slack or too tight belts. 

3. Run belts with the hair side next to the pulley. 

4. Cover face of pulley with belting and have . the 
hair side out. 

5. Keep belts dry and flexible. 

Size of Belting. A two-ply belt may be subjected to 
an effective tension of 40 pounds per inch of width with- 
out straining it. In determining, therefore, the width of 
a belt for a given horse power the effective tension of the 
belt must be considered. Further, since a fast running 
belt is capable of transmitting a greater horse power per 
given width than a slow running belt, the speed of the 
belt must also be considered. Hence the following 
formula : 



192 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

M^rA.^ f K u No. H. P. X 33,000 

Wiath of belt= — ^p^^ ^^^ 77. 

TT D X No. rev. X 40 

In which 

H. P. = Horse power. 

33,000 = Number of foot-pounds in one H. P. 
No. rev. = Number of revolutions of drive pulley 
per minute. 
40 = Effective tension. 
TT = 3.1416. 
D. = Diameter of drive pulley in feet. 

Example : What width of two-ply belting is required 
with a drive pulley fourteen inches in diameter, making 
three hundred revolutions per minute and developing ten 
horse power? 

Applying our formula we have : 

10 X 33,000 „^. , 

"^'^''^ = 3.1416X14X300X40 = '"^ ^"^^^^- 

Lacing Belts. In lacing belts care must be taken 
never to cross the lacing on the side of belt next to the 
pulley, nor to have more than a double thickness of 
lacing. The ends of the belt should be cut off squarely 
so as to have them come together at all points. Holes 
are punched in a line one inch from the cut edges 
with the outer ones within half an inch of the edge of the 
belt. They should be just large enough to permit double 
lacing. The lacing is best begun at the middle of the 
belt, care being taken to have the smooth side of the lace 
on the side of the belt that runs on the pulley. The ends 
are fastened either by running them through small holes 
punched in line with the lace holes, or by cutting a small 
slit in the middle of one end, then cutting into the edge 
and toward the end of the other, which is run through 
the slit just beyond the cut edge. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING- 193 

Rubber belts are not as desirable for creamery use as 
leather belts. 

Adjustment of Shafts. To avoid straining a belt the 
shafts must be parallel. This means that where the inter- 
mediate and engine are hitched to the same shaft the 
latter must be placed in position first. The engine and 
intermediate are then lined up so as to have their shafts 
run parallel with the main shaft. When the shafts are 
parallel the pulleys are easily adjusted so as to have the 
belts run on the middle of the pulley. 

Lubricants or Oils. These slippery substances act in 
a two- fold way in minimizing the friction between sliding 
surfaces : ( i ) by filling up the inequalities of the sliding 
surfaces, thus preventing interlocking; (2) by allowing 
oil to slide on oil instead of one solid surface upon 
another. 

The best oils are those that are entirely free from any 
tendency to gumminess and it is economy to use only 
such. Indeed in fast running machinery no other oils are 
permissible. 

Consistency of Oils. This is determined by the use 
to which the oil is put. In fast running machinery where 
there is little pressure on the bearings, as, for example 
in a cream separator, very thin oil is most serviceable. 
The reasons for this are ( i ) that only a very thin layer 
of oil is required in the bearings of such machinery, and 
(2) that there is some friction produced in one layer of 
oil sliding upon another, and the thinner the oil the less 
will be the friction produced in this way. 

The crank shaft of an engine, which runs at a com- 
paratively low speed and is subjected to more or less 
pressure, requires a rather heavy oil for best service. 

Hot Bearings. These are most frequently caused by 



194 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



using an insufficient amount, or the wrong kind, of oil. 
Hot bearings are also frequently caused by dirt, slipping 
belts, too tight belts, and too tight bearings. 

TOOLS, PACKING, AND STEAM FITTINGS. 

A creamery contains a great deal of machinery and 




Fig. 55.— Pipe cutter. 



Fig. 56.— Stock and die 




piping. The need of an ample supply of tools, packing, 
and steam fittings is therefore evident. 

Tools. These consist mainly of pipe cutter, two pipe 
tongs, vise, stock and dies, alligator wrench, a pair of gas 
pliers, hammer, punch, and screw driver. Fig. 55 shows 
pipe cutter ; Fig. 56, stock and dies ; Fig. 57, alligator 
wrench ; Fig. 58, vise ; and Fig. 59, pipe wrench. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



195 



Packing. All steam stuffing boxes should be packed 
with asbestos which has been treated with a mixture of 
oil and graphite. 




Fig. 57.— Adjustable alligator wrench. 

Pipe joints, such as unions, 
should be fitted with rainbow gas- 
kets to which a little graphite or 
chalk is added to prevent their 
sticking to the joints. Pipes that 
must be frequently taken apart 
should have ground joints. These 
will do away with the use of 
gaskets which are troublesome in 
such cases. 

Steam Fittings. Extra fittings 
for one-half to two inch pipes 
should always be on hand. The 
necessary fittings are elbows, nip- 
ples, bushings, tees (Ts), plugs. Fig. 58 -vise. 
lock nuts, couplings, reducing couplings, and unions. 





Fig. 59.~Pipe wrench. 



196 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



When using right and left nipples, that is, nipples with 
a right thread at one end and left thread at the other, 
screw each end separately into the pipe which it is to fit 
and count the number of threads covered. If, for exam- 
ple, four right threads are covered and six left threads, 

then cover two left threads be- 

r" \ fore joining with the other 

^^ — -^ • ^ end. In this way the two ends 

turn tight at the same time, 
which is necessary to prevent 
leaking. 

VALVES. 

The subject of valves is an 
important one and deserves 
much attention. Usually the 
ordinary creamery contains 
from twenty-five to fifty 
valves. It is, therefore, not sur- 
prising to find steam and 
water leaks in a creamery building. To replace a valve 
as soon as it begins leaking is too expensive. The proper 
thing to do is to repair it. In the following paragraphs 
a brief discussion will be given of the kinds of valves 
and the methods of repairing them. 

Globe Valve. This valve, shown in Fig. 60, takes 
its name from its globular form. It is preferably so 
placed as to allow the pressure of the steam to come 
under the valve. 

Check Valve. This is placed between the boiler and 
the feed pipe to prevent the return of water and steam. 




Fig. 60.— Globe valve. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 197- 

Gate Valve. As its name implies, this is a valve 
closed by a gate. 

Throttle Valve. This is the valve that admits the 
steam to the engine. 

Stop or Gas Valve. This is opened by giving it a 
half turn. It is commonly used on receiving vats, and 
on milk and skim-milk pipes. 

Rotary Valve. This is illustrated by the stop cocks 
used on the boiler. 

Ball Valve. This is an automatic valve ^'Uustrated by 
the float that regulates the feed of the separator. 

Parts of a Globe Valve. These are: (i) chamber; 
(2) seat; (3) stem; (4) stuffing box; (5) disc; and (6) 
handle. The chamber is the place where the valve oper- 
ates. The disc is attached to the stem and closes the 
valve by turning it onto the seat. 

Repairing of Globe Valves. There are three parts in a 
valve that may cause it to leak : ( i ) the seat, (2) the disc, 
and (3) the stem. In valves like the Huxley where the seat 
and disc are replaceable, extras should always be kept 
on hand so that either may be replaced when leaking. 
In valves like the Jenkins where only the disc is replace- 
able a "reseater" should be at hand whereby the seat of 
the valve can be made to fit tight again. A reseater for 
valves from one-half to one and one-half inches in 
diameter can be bought for twenty-five dollars, and 
creameries that use valves in which the seat is not re- 
movable should be provided with one. 

The valve discs are made of various materials, but, for 
ordinary steam pressure, brass and * 'composition" discs 
are giving the best satisfaction. 



198 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



The stuffing box of the valve is packed with asbestos 
to which a mixture of oil and graphite is first added. This 
packing will prevent the stem from leaking. The burr 
of the stuffing box must be tightened from time to time 
when it shows signs of leaking. 



Fig. 61.— Intersecting 
planes. 




Pig. 62.— An aid to lining up shafts. 



In case of water valves the stuffing boxes are best 
packed with oiled candle wicking. 



LINING UP SHAFTING. 



Fasten a heavily chalked string along the ceiling paral- 
lel to the direction the shafting is to take. Snap the 
string, and a white mark will indicate the position of the 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 199 

shafting in a plane at right angles to the floor. This 
plane is indicated by the line ab in Fig. 6i. Next 
determine the position of the shafting in a plane parallel 
to the floor, indicated by the line cd. This is done as 
follows : Loosely fasten the hangers along the white 
chalk line and properly fasten the shafting. Now hang 
on the shafting, at intervals of three feet, pieces of board 
like that shown in Fig. 62. The upper end is rounded 
to fit over the shaft, while the lower end is perforated 
as indicated by the dot. These pieces of board must be 
carefully cut so that the distance P is the same in all. 
If the holes at the lower ends are all in line the shafting 
is properly lined up. If not. the shaft needs readjusting. 



CHAPTER XVir 

PASTEURIZATION AS APPLIED TO BUTTER MAKING. 

The process known as pasteurization derives its name 
from the eminent French bacteriologist Pasteur. It con- 
sists in heating and cooHng in a manner which will de- 
stroy the vegetative or actively growing bacteria. Milk 
or cream is also considered pasteurized when only the 
bulk of the vegetative bacteria is destroyed. 

Beginning of Cream Pasteurization. About fourteen 
years ago Storch, the noted Danish scientist, succeeded 
in isolating from milk the bacteria that are needed in 
successfully ripening cream. Cultures of these bacteria 
were prepared and propagated in his laboratory and 
placed upon the market for cream ripening. It became 
evident to Storch, however, that the best results could 
not be expected when these cultures were added to cream 
that was already teeming with various species of bacteria. 
This led him to the idea of preparing a clean field for 
his cultures by destroying the germs that already existed 
in the cream by pasteurizing it. After this treatment the 
cream was inoculated with the desirable germs that he had 
isolated and propagated for this purpose. The result of 
this practice was that it became possible to produce butter 
which not only possessed a very fine flavor but which was 
characterized by its extreme uniformity and good keeping 
quality. 

Storch soon succeeded in introducing this method of 
butter making into Danish creameries which has done 

200 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 201 

much toward making Denmark the most noted butter- 
producing country in the world. Practically all butter 
produced in that country at the present time is made 
from pasteurized cream. 

Pasteurized Butter in America. The growth of the 
system of pasteurized butter making has been slow in 
America up to within recent years. That pasteurized 
butter possesses merits over unpasteurized has, however, 
long since been demonstrated by American agricultural 
colleges and private investigators. It remained, never- 
theless, for our practical butter makers to place the 
merits of this system beyond a possible doubt. During 
the past two years most of the important prizes awarded 
to butter makers have gone to makers of pasteurized 
butter. M. Sondergaard and John Sollie, two cham- 
pion butter makers of the United States, are the firmest 
advocates of pasteurization. Creameries all over the 
country are now turning their attention to pasteuriza- 
tion and the general adoption of the system in America 
can only be a matter of time. The Continental Creamery 
Co. of Topeka, Kansas, one of the largest creameries in 
the w^orld, is now making butter exclusively from pas- 
teurized cream. 

Why We Should Pasteurize. It must not be for- 
gotten that the standard of American butter is becom- 
ing higher year after year. Methods which only six years 
ago produced a butter that, fairly suited the general 
market, are now obsolete and unsatisfactory. In il- 
lustration of this may be cited the practice of using butter- 
milk starters, or the use of no starters at all, in creamery 
practice. The author has closely watched the careers of 
several young men who, only a few years ago, had met 
with a fair degree of success in ripening cream with but- 



202 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

termilk starters, but whose persistence in adhering to old 
methods has driven them out of the profession of butter 
making. 

The rational use of starters has done much to raise 
the genei^al standard of butter in America. But the finest 
starters added to cream already teeming with many species 
of good and bad bacteria, can not produce the best re- 
sults. It is obvious that the best results with good starters 
are possible only when the bacteria in the cream are first 
destroyed by pasteurization so that the good germs intro- 
duced by the starter may have a clean field for develop- 
ment. 

If nothing but clean, uncontaminated milk were de- 
livered at our creameries, pasteurization could hold no 
place in our system of butter making, for such milk 
could not be improved by this process. But we can not 
hope, for many years at least, to have all milk arrive 
at the creameries in good, clean condition, though of 
course great possibilities remain for improvement in this 
direction. Some milk will persist in coming to the cream- 
ery too good to reject and too poor to make the best qual- 
ity of butter. 

Then, too, with the advent of the hand separator system 
in creamery butter making, pasteurization has become 
more imperative than ever before. Where cream of vary- 
ing ages and acidity is received it is more difficult to 
secure uniformity and good keeping quality in butter than 
is the case where the milk is daily delivered to the cream- 
ery. 

It is hoped that the general recognition of the merits 
of pasteurization will soon be followed by the adoption 
of this method of butter making in all of our creameries. 
We need to produce a butter of better keeping quality and 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 203 

of greater uniformity, two qualities which American but- 
ter notably lacks. 

Some of the advantages of pasteurization are well set 
forth by M. Mortenson in an article contributed to the 
Chicago Dairy Produce (p. 798, 1903). He says: "By 
pasteurizing the cream and adding a starter he (butter 
maker) secures perfect control of fermentations, and he 
will be enabled to make a uniform grade of butter. By 
pasteurization it is also possible to remove taints caused 
by foods consumed by the animal, also taints that have 
been absorbed by the milk from unfavorable surround- 
ings. One point strongly in favor of this system is the 
keeping quality which pasteurized butter possesses. If 
we desire to compete for the foreign trade we must make 
pasteurized butter. A dealer in Montreal informed me 
that he would willingly pay one cent more for pasteurized 
than raw cream butter." Mortenson is one of our most 
successful butter makers and a champion of pasteuriza- 
tion. 

Methods of Making Pasteurized Butter. Pasteur- 
ized butter may be made by pasteurizing either the milk 
or the cream. The latter method is the one generally em- 
ployed at the present time. 

The machines used for pasteurizing are of two kinds : 

I. Discontinuous pasteurizers, used for pasteurizing 
small quantities of milk or cream, in which the heating 
lasts from 15 minutes to i hour, according as the tempera- 
ture is high or low. 2. Continuous pasteurizers in which 
a constant stream of cream or milk flows through the 
machine and is heated only during its few moments pas- 
sage from the bottom to the top of the pasteurizer. 

The heating in both classes of machines is done in a 
jacket surrounding the milk or cream in which either 



204- 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



live steam or hot water is used. The latter is to be 
preferred, because hot water does not scorch as much as 
live steam. 




Fig. 63. -Cream pasteurizer and cooler. 



In purchasing a pasteurizer the following points should 
be observed : first, the ease with which the machine can 
be cleaned; second, the capacity, which should be large 
enough to avoid crowding ; third, the ease and uniformity 
with which the cream or milk can be heated ; fourth, the 
durability of the machine. 

It is a great mistake to buy a machine of too small 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



2Ud 



capacity. Such a machine must be fed so heavily as to 
necessitate a thick layer of milk or cream over the heating 
surface which can not result in uniform heating. 



DISCHARGL 




SPRING WATER 
SUPPLY 



ice: water 

RETURN 



ICE WATF.R 
SUPPLY 



Fig. 64.— Cream cooler. 



Cream Pasteurization. For creameries the most popu- 
lar as well as the most practical method of making pas- 
teurized butter consists in heating cream to 185° F. in a 
continuous pasteurizer and then rapidly cooling it to 65° 
F. By this treatment the great bulk of bacteria is de- 
stroyed. 

Fig. 63 illustrates a common form of pasteurizer and 
cream cooler. The cream flows directly from the separa- 
tor into the bottom of the pasteurizer whence it is forced 
upward by means of revolving dashers, which finally 
discharge it over the cream cooler at the left. 



206 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The circulation of the water in the cooler is indicated 
by the arrows. A cooler consisting of 12 discs will cool 
the cream from two separators to within 10 degrees of the 
temperature of the water. 

It will be noticed from the cut that the cooler is pro- 
vided with a cover, but it is best to leave this off as pas- 
teurized cream needs very thorough aeration. 

A cooler like that shown in Fig. 22 will cool and aerate 
cream satisfactorily when made large enough. It should 
be at least 10 feet long and i foot wide. Fig. 64 illus- 
trates another form of cream cooler which has proved 
very efficient. 

Pasteurization will not prove successful unless the 
cream is rapidly cooled to at least 65° F. immediately after 
it leaves the pasteurizer. 

During the past four years a great many experiments 
have been carried out at the Michigan Dairy School 
along pasteurizing lines, with a view of determining the 
advantages of making pasteurized butter. 

The experiments have had for their immediate objects: 
I. To study the relative merits of pasteurizing whole milk 
and cream ; 2. To study the extent to which pasteuriza- 
tion improves the quality of the butter; 3. To study the 
keeping quality of pasteurized butter. 

The results of these tests are briefly summarized as fol- 
lows : 

1. There was practically no difference in the quality 
of the butter produced from pasteurized whole milk and 
that made from pasteurized cream. 

2. Where the milk was of average purity the butter 
from the pasteurized cream scored on an average 3 points 
higher than that from the unpasteurized, using, 15% 
starter in each case. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 207 

3. When the milk was below average purity, the but- 
ter from the pasteurized cream scored from 4 to 6 points 
higher than that from the unpasteurized, using 15% 
starter in each case. 

4. When the unpasteurized cream from milk below 
average purity was ripened without starter and the pas- 
teurized cream from the same milk was ripened with 15% 
starter, the difference in the scores was from 8 to 1 1 points 
in favor of the pasteurized cream. 

5. The keeping quality of the butter made from pas- 
teurized cream was in most cases so far superior to that 
from the unpasteurized, that the author feels that the in- 
creased keeping quality alone should warrant the general 
introduction of pasteurization in our system of butter 
making. 

Samples of the butter obtained in the above experiments 
were usually sent to W. H. Healey, New York City, for 
scoring. 

A host of other careful experiments conducted in Wis- 
consin, Iowa, Canada, and elsewhere, have so firmly estab- 
lished the merits of pasteurized butter that the general in- 
troduction of the system of pasteurization can not long 
be delayed. 

Purification of Wash Water. The matter of using 
clean, pure water for washing butter has hitherto not 
received the attention which this subject demands. There 
is no question that much butter is robbed of its rich, 
creamy flavor by too much w^ashing with impure water. 
Experiments conducted at the Iowa station and elsewhere 
have shown that the flavor and keeping quality of butter 
can be improved by purifying the average wash water, 
either by filtering or sterilizing it. 

Where pasteurized butter is made it is of the utmost 



208 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

importance to use nothing but pure water for rinsing 
cream vats and washing butter, else pasteurization will 
prove a delusion. 

Purifying Water by Filtration. Most people are 
familiar with the purifying action which water under- 
goes in its passage through sand, gravel, charcoal, etc. 
For purifying water used for washmg butter, artificial 
filter beds constructed of such material have given excel- 
lent satisfaction. 

The filter can described in bulletin No. 71 from the 
Iowa Experiment Station is 48 inches high, 18 inches in 
diameter, and constructed of 22 gage galvanized iron. Be- 
ginning at the bottom the filtering material was placed in 
the can in the following order: i. 2 inches of small flint 
stones ; 2. 22 inches of fine sand ; 3. 12 inches of fine coke ; 
4. 9 inches of charcoal ; 5. 2 inches of fine stone or coarse 
gravel. Two perforated plates are placed in the can, one 
near the bottom upon which the filtering material rests, 
the other on top of the fine sand. A third and concave 
plate is placed near the top with a hole in the center, 
which directs the water to the center of the filter bed. 

This can has a filtering capacity of 16 gallons per hour, 
and it is claimed that the filter does not need to be cleaned 
or renewed oftener than once in four months and possibly 
not this often. The cost of the can is $11.11. 

Filtration offers one of the cheapest methods of purify- 
ing water and is the method generally employed by cities 
that are dependent upon lakes for their water supply. 

Purification of Water by Heating. Water may be pas- 
teurized in the same manner as cream. There is, how- 
ever, one objection to this method of purifying water, 
and that is the bad effect which it has on the pasteurizer. 
In the course of time a distinct laver of the mineral im- 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



209 



purities of the water will be deposited upon the walls of 
the pasteurizer in a manner similar to the formation of 
scale in the boiler. This mineral deposit will in time 
destroy the usefulness of the pasteurizer. 



CREIAMEIRV ROOM 




A 

STE.RII_IZ.E1D V^ATE-R. 



BOIUE.R ROOM 



ri_OOR. 



Fig. 65.— Showing method of sterilizing wash water for butter. 



A more satisfactory method of purifying water by heat- 
ing is illustrated in Fig. 65. The water is pumped from" 
the well into the galvanized iron tank A, which is placed 
about 6 feet above the floor in the boiler room. This 
tank is tightly covered with the exception of a small 
vent in the cover. 

The water is heated by placing a series of galvanized 
iron pipes in the bottom of the tank through which all, 
or a part, of the exhaust steam from the engine is con- 
ducted. In this way the expense of heating water will 
cost nothing more than a slight back pressure on the 



210 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The hot water may be drawn off from this tank when- 
ever desirable and cooled in the same manner as the 
cream, that is, by running it over the cream cooler B. 
From the cooler the water should be run into a tank, in 
which it can be cooled to the desired temperature by 
means of ice water. The water as it leaves the cooler 
will have a temperature of from 60 to 65 degrees, so that 
only enough ice will be needed to reduce the tempera- 
ture about 10 degrees. 

Fig. 65 also illustrates the method of heating water 
for the boiler and for general washing. 

Cost of Pasteurizing Cream. Unfortunately definite 
data on the cost of pasteurizing cream are still wanting. 
According to Danish experiments the cost will be approxi- 
mately .1 cent per pound of butter. These results seem 
to be confirmed by the best practical butter makers in this 
country who have pasteurized for several years. 

The cost of pasteurizing must, however, always depend 
largely upon the manner in which the pasteurizing pro- 
cess is carried out. For example, if the water used for 
cooling the cream is pumped into the water supply tank 
for the boiler, a large portion of the heat used for pas- 
teurizing is recovered. Further, if the proper coolers are 
used, ordinary well water will cool the cream to the 
ripening temperature without the use of ice. Some have 
also found it practical to use the exhaust steam from the 
engine for pasteurizing cream. 

The care and cleaning of the pasteurizer and cooler 
will, of course, entail extra labor, but the labor thus in- 
volved will not materially add to the expense of pasteuriz- 
ing. 

Pasteurization of Gathered Cream. There is proba- 
bly no problem along pasteurizing lines of greater impor- 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 211 

tance at present than the pasteurization of hand separator 
or gathered cream. Heretofore the apparent difficulty in 
the way of pasteurizing this cream has been the high 
degree of acidity which it often reaches before deHvery 
to the creamery. 

To arrive at some definite conclusions, a series of ex- 
periments was carried out at the Michigan Dairy School 
under the direction of the author, in which cream with 
an acidity varying from .3 to .6 per cent was pasteurized 
in a continuous pasteurizer at a temperature of 185° F. 
After pasteurization, one-half was left without starter, the 
other half was treated with 25 per cent starter after it 
had reached a temperature of 65° F. Both lots were 
then cooled to 48° F., where they were held for ten 
hours and then churned. Control experiments were car- 
ried of unpasteurized cream ripened without starter. 
Samples of the butter made were sent to W. H. Healy of 
New York for scoring. 

The results obtained in these experiments are sum- 
marized as follows : 

1. Cream with a fat content of from 20 to 40 per 
cent can be pasteurized without difficulty even when the 
acidity reaches .6 per cent. 

2. When no starter was added to the pasteurized sour 
cream no improvement in the flavor of the butter was 
noticeable. 

3. When the pasteurized sour cream was treated with 
25 per cent starter the flavor of the butter was improved 
from 2 to 4 points in every experiment. 

4. Pasteurizing sour cream destroys its heavy con- 
sistency, which cannot be recovered even when ripened 
with 25 per cent starter. The body of the butter from 
this cream was perfect, however. 



212 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

5. There was practically no difference in the yield of 
butter from the pasteurized and unpasteurized sour cream. 

6. The average test of the buttermilk from the pasteur- 
ized sour cream was .07 per cent, that from the unpasteur- 
ized, .09 per cent. 

7. There was a marked increase in the keeping quality 
of the butter made from pasteurized sour cream treated 
with starter. 

8. The acidity of the sour cream was somewhat dimin- 
ished by the pasteurizing process. 

These experiments have shown that it is absolutely 
essential to add a heavy starter to the pasteurized sour 
cream even if the latter shows an acidity of .6 per cent. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



CO-OPERATION. 



I. Co-operative Creameries. There are two distinct 
classes of creameries in existence at the present time. 
( I ) Those owned and operated by private individuals, 
called proprietary creameries; (2) those owned and oper- 
ated by the patrons, known as co-operative creameries. 

Most of the creameries built at the present time belong 
to the co-operative type. This is the ideal plan upon 
which creameries should be built and operated and it has 
in most cases proved successful. 

Methods of Organizing Co=operative Creameries. 
Too frequently co-operative creameries are established 
by so-called "promoters," whose aim is to make money for 
themselves by taxing the farmers a thousand dollars or 
more in excess of the actual cost of the creamery. 

If a community of farmers is interested in the estab- 
lishment of a creamery, the following method of organiz- 
ing should be pursued : 

1. Let those most interested in the project make a 
thorough canvass of the milk producers in that community 
to ascertain the number of cows available. There should 
not be less than 400 cows to start with. 

2. If the desired number of cows is available, the next 
step is to secure a subscription of $4,500 by selling shares 
for that amount. This sum of money is necessary to build 
and equip a substantial fire proof creamery containing all 
the modern creamery machinery. Where possible it is 

213 



214 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

desirable to sell shares only to prospective creamery 
patrons, so that the creamery may be a truly co-operative 
one. 

3. When the necessary funds have been subscribed, 
call a meeting of the shareholders to elect a president, 
secretary, treasurer, manager, and a board of directors 
which should consist of the president, secretary, treasurer, 
and at least three other shareholders. 

4. The next step is to specify a certain time within 
which all subscriptions must be paid. The money is pref- 
erably turned over to a reliable banker in the form of 
notes bearing interest. 

5. The treasurer should be authorized to draw upon 
the bank for the money thus deposited whenever occasion 
demands, but he should be required to give security for 
the money that comes into his hands. 

6. When all subscriptions have been paid, a meeting 
of the board of directors should be called for the purpose 
of hiring a butter maker who shall not only be able to 
make a first class article of butter, but who shall also be 
competent to plan and superintend the construction of the 
creamery. This is a point w^hich most co-operative cream- 
eries overlook. The result is there are dozens of cream- 
eries scattered all over the country which are faulty in 
both design and construction. 

Before drawing up his plans it would be policy for 
the butter maker to visit several up-to-date creameries so 
as to get the latest ideas on creamery construction. 

7. The creamery is paid for out of a sinking fund 
created by charging the patrons, in addition to the charge 
necessary to cover running expenses, say one cent for 
every pound of butter fat delivered until the creamery 
is paid for. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 215 

8. After the creamery is paid for, there should l)e 
an annual dividend declared to the shareholders as inter- 
est on their investment. 

9. A sufficient sinking fund must be maintained to 
cover the annual dividend and the running expenses, by 
charging from two to three cents for every pound of 
butter fat delivered. 

Management of Co=operative Creameries. Too fre- 
quently the management of co-operative creameries is 
placed in the hands of persons who know little or nothing 
about creamery matters. Perhaps more co-operative 
creamery failures can be traced to this cause than to any 
other. 

The stockholders of co-operative creameries should 
select a manager and managing board who are familiar 
with the details of the business they are going to manage. 
Advice should freely be sought from the butter maker 
who in most cases is the best posted man to govern the 
affairs of the creamery. 

2. Co=operation of Butter maker and Patron. The 
relationship of butter maker and patron should be one of 
mutual interest — a business relationship. Butter making 
is a business and, as such, should be governed by business 
principles. 

The butter maker, then, besides being able to make a 
fine quality of butter, must be a business man, dealing as 
he does with farmers, bankers, merchants, mechanics, and 
others. He must be honest, tactful, and full of enterprise. 

Too frequently self-interest figures too conspicuously in 
the management of creamery affairs. This can not help 
but result, sooner or later, in the ruination of the business. 

The butter maker has, and must have, certain rights 
which, if rightly asserted, can not help but be productive 



216 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of much good. If used otherwise, these rights will create 
enmity and become a damage to the creamery. For exam- 
ple, a butter maker has a right to demand of his patrons 
good clean milk, but he can not attain his object by 
repeatedly sending back milk that is not right. Tactfully 
explaining the evils resulting from unclean milk, giving 
the probable cause, and manifesting a willingness to visit 
his premises, will accomplish very much more in reform- 
ing the patron. 

Greeting the patrons with a smile and a ''good morn- 
ing" inspires confidence. Accuracy in sampling, weighing 
and testing, a clean person and clean surroundings, are 
things that merit more than ordinary attention. 

The best way for butter makers to get along with their 
patrons is to help them in every way they can. They 
should act as educators of their patrons in their respective 
communities. No person has a greater opportunity for 
doing good in his community than the butter maker. 

A few printed instructions to patrons occasionally can 
not fail to be productive of much good, both to the patron 
and to the butter maker. The following may be con- 
sidered as sample instructions : 

1. Get cows that are purely dairy animals. Cows that 
have a tendency to lay on flesh while giving milk are not 
the most profitable for the dairy. A milch cow should 
convert her food into milk, not into flesh. Such a cow 
you will generally find a spare, lean looking animal. 

2. Do not be afraid to invest $ioo in a good sire of 
some good dairy breed to head your herd. See to it 
that this sire is a descendant of prolific milkers, and that 
he has good breeding qualities. 

3. Feed liberally. Remember that about sixty per 
cent of what a cow can eat and properly assimilate is 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 217 

required for her maintenance ; that which is fed beyond 
this is utiHzed for the production of milk if the cow is 
a purely milk-producing animal. Hence the wisdom of 
feeding a cow to her full capacity. 

4. Do not feed just one kind of feed. Variety of 
feeds is essential in economical feeding. 

5. Feed liberally of concentrated feeds like bran and 
oil meal, especially during scarcity of pasturage. 

6. Do not be afraid to invest $16 in a ton of bran, 
for its value to you as a fertilizer alone is $11. 

7. Always milk your cows at the same time morning 
and evening. Regularity in milking means more milk. 

8. Do not change milkers, and insist that the milkers 
treat the cows gently. 

9. Always thoroughly cool night's milk by placing it 
in cold water and stirring it frequently. 

10. Do not allow the calves to suckle the cows more 
than three days after calving. 

11. Always add a few tablespoonfuls of oil meal or 
cooked flax seed to the skim-milk before feeding it to 
your calves. 

12. Grow a liberal supply of clover and peas, for these 
produce a liberal flow of milk, at the same time enrich- 
ing the soil. 

13. Grow an abundance of corn and ensilo it. It may 
prove your most economical feed. 

14. Never place your milk cans in the barn while 
milking for the barn odors will taint the milk. 

15. Do not bed or feed your cows, or in any way dis- 
turb the barn dust, while milking. 

16. Always provide your cows with a liberal supply 
of salt and pure water. Never allow them to drink stag- 
nant water. 



218 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

ly. Bring samples of milk from the individual cows 
of your herd for testing. It will cost you nothing, but 
it may be of great value to you. 

i8. A sample consisting of a portion (i oz.) of the 
night's and morning's milk is necessary for a test. Always 
thoroughly mix milk before sampling. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

DETECTION OF TAINTED OR IMPURE MILK. 

In well regulated creameries the head butter maker 
will usually be found at the intake every morning care- 
fully examining the milk as it arrives at the factory. It 
requires skill and training to detect and properly locate 
the numerous taints to which milk is heir. It also requires 
considerable tact to reform patrons who have been care- 
less in the handling of their milk. The best skill available 
in the creamery should therefore be placed in the intake. 

In the daily examination of milk, defects can usually be 
detected by smelling of it as soon as the cover is re- 
moved from the cans. When, however, milk arrives at 
the creamery at a temperature of 50° F. or below, it 
becomes more difficult to detect taints ; indeed during the 
winter when milk is often received in a partly frozen 
condition, experts may be unable to detect faults which 
become quite prominent when the milk is heated to a 
temperature of 100° F. or above. 

Frequently milk is seeded with undesirable kinds of 
bacteria which have not had time to develop sufficiently 
to manifest themselves at the time the milk is delivered 
to the creamery, but which later in the course of cream 
ripening produce undesirable flavors. It is necessary, 
therefore, in making a thorough examination of milk to 
heat it to a temperature of from 95° to 100° F. and to 
keep it there for some time to permit a vigorous bacterial 
development. Such bacterial development is best carried 
on in what is known as the Wisconsin Curd Test, a full 
description of which is given below. 

219 



220 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

WISCONSIN CURD TEST. 

This test originated at the Wisconsin Dairy School. 
The name of the test impHes that the samples of milk 
to be tested are curded, which is accomplished in a man- 
ner similar to that in which milk is curded for cheese 
making. 

The Wisconsin Curd Test is frequently spOKen oi as 
''fermentation test," since the process involved consists in 
fermenting the milk by holding it at a temperature at 
which the bacterial fermentations go on most rapidly. 

Apparatus. This consists of one pint cylindrical tin 
cans placed in a tin frame, and of a well insulated box 
made so that the tin frame will nicely slide into it. Added 
to this is a case knife, and a small pipette used to measure 
rennet extract. 

The construction of the box and the position of the cans 
inside is illustrated in Fig. 66. This box consists of 
three-eighths inch lumber, the inside of which is lined with 
a quarter inch thickness of felt. Narrow strips are tacked 
on the felt and tin upon these, the object of the strips 
being to prevent conduction of heat by contact of the tin 
with the felt. The cover of the box is constructed in the 
same way and made to fit tight. This construction makes 
it possible to maintain a nearly constant temperature of 
the samples which are surrounded by water as shown in 
the illustration. 

Making the Test. A curd or fermentation test is made 
at the creamery by selecting from each patron about two- 
thirds of a pint of milk and placing this in the tin pint 
cans after they have been thoroughly sterilized. Each 
pint can should be provided with a sterilized cover which 
is placed upon it as soon as the sample has been taken. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



221 



The sample cans are next placed in the insulated box 
provided for them. Here they are warmed by adding 
water at a temperature of 103° F. to the box, a tempera- 
ture which should be maintained throughout the whole 
test. 




WOOO rCUT UIMllMG. STRIFES oj:- 

Fig. 66.— Section through curd test. 

With a sterile thermometer watch the rise in tempera- 
ture until it has reached 86° F. when 10 drops of rennet 
extract are added to each sample and mixed with it for a 
few moments with a sterile case knife. This knife must 
be sterilized for each sample to avoid transferring bacteria 
from one can to another. 

As soon as the milk has curdled it is sliced with the 
case knife to permit the separation of the whey. After 
the whey has been separating for half an hour, the sam- 
ples should be examined for flavor, which can be told far 
better at this stage than is possible by smelling of the milk 
as it arrives at the creamery. 

After the samples have all been carefully examined, 
the whey is poured off at intervals of from twenty to 
forty minutes for not less than eight hours. At the end 



222 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of this time a mass of curd will be found at the bottom 
of the can in which there has been a vigorous develop- 
ment of bacteria throughout the test. 

If the sample of milk is free from taint, this curd when 
cut with a knife will be perfectly smooth and close. If, 
on the other hand, the sample contains gas germs, these 
in course of eight hours' development will have produced 
enough gas to give the curd an open spongy appearance 
when cut. The openings are usually small and round, 
hence the name ''pin holes" has been applied to them in- 
dicating holes the size of a pin's head. 

Whenever, therefore, milk produces a curd that an- 
swers this description it may be taken for granted that it 
contains undesirable bacteria. 

Sometimes the milk may be tainted and yet produce a 
close textured curd, but in such cases the taint can be 
detected by carefully smelling of the curd. 

Precautions. In making a test as above outlined two 
things must constantly be kept in mind: first, that to se- 
cure the desired bacterial development, the temperature of 
the samples must be maintained as nearly as possible at 
98° F., which is accomplished by surrounding them with 
water at a temperature of 103° ; second, that to avoid con- 
taminating one sample with another, the knife used for 
mixing the rennet with the milk and cutting the curd 
must be sterilized for each can. The thermometer used 
must also be sterile. 

The temperature of the samples can easily be main- 
tained by using a well insulated box like that shown in 
Fig. 66. When a common tin box is used it becomes 
necessary to change the water in it about once every half 
hour. 



CHAPTER XX. 



CARE OF MILK AND SKIM-MILK. 

No matter how skillful a butter maker may be he can 
not produce the highest quality of butter from milk of 
inferior quality. Skill may 
do much to improve qual- 
ity but it can never make 
perfection out of imperfec- 
tion. It should, therefore, 
be as much a duty of the 
butter maker to keep his 
patrons properly instructed 
in the care and handling of 
milk as it is to keep himself 
posted on the latest and 
most approved methods of 
making butter. 

The cows should be milk- 
ed in clean, well ventilated 

barns in which the air is kept free from dust during milk- 
ing. This means that cows should not be fed or bedded 
about milking time. In ordinary milking a great share 
of the bacteria find their way into the milk through 
the dust that dislodges from the animal. This is easily 
prevented by wiping the flanks and udder of the cow with 
a moist cloth just before milking. 

Immediately after the milk is drawn it should be re- 
moved from the barn to a clean, pure atmosphere where it 
is aerated and cooled by running it over a combined 
aerator and cooler like that shown in Fig. (yj. The 

223 




Fig. 67.— Milk aerator and cooler. 



224 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

barrel here shown is fihecl with cold water which circu- 
lates, as it flows from the barrel, between the two tin 
surfaces of the cooler over which the milk flows in thin 
sheets, thus cooling it to within five degrees of the tem- 
perature of the water. 




Fig. 68. -Skim-milk pasteurizer. 

The ordinary method of cooling milk in ten gallon cans 
by setting them in a tank of cold water is too slow. The 
result is that during the summer months milk frequently 
arrives at the creamery sour or nearly so. 

All milk should be strained through absorbent cotton. 
A strainer consisting of a few thicknesses of cheese cloth 
is of little value. 

Milking utensils, such as pails, cans and dippers, 
should be thoroughly washed and scalded after which 
they are placed in direct sunlight. 

Pasteurization of Skim=milk. To secure the greatest 
feeding value of skim-milk it must be fed sweet. During 
the summer months skim-milk as it is ordinarily returned 
from creameries, keeps sweet but a short time, a fact 
which has compelled many a farmer to purchase a hand 
separator and separate the milk at the farm. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 225 

To keep the skim-milk in good feeding condition it 
must be pasteurized at the creamery. The cheapest and 
most common means by which this is done is to heat 
it with a heater Hke that shown in Fig. 68. This heater 
utiHzes the exhaust steam from the engine and heats 
the skim-milk to temperatures ranging from 170° to 
200° F. The skim-milk enters at one end of the 
heater while the steam (either live or exhaust) enters 
through the top near the point at which the skim-milk 
enters. The steam thus comes in direct contact with the 
skim-milk and condenses, heating it to the above tempera- 
ture. One end of the pasteurizer is removable so as to 
permit thorough cleaning. 

Objections have frequently been raised against this 
method of pasteurizing because of the small quantity of 
cylinder oil contained in the exhaust steam. Where judg- 
ment is used in oiling cylinders no trouble need be 
anticipated from this source as the oil can be detected only 
with difficulty. 

Extensive inquiry into the matter of pasteurizing skim- 
milk has developed the fact that the patrons and the 
calves must be educated to the change from unpasteurized 
to pasteurized skim-milk, and where this has been done 
pasteurization has given the best of satisfaction — indeed 
the patrons would refuse to accept the skim-milk unpas- 
teurized. Calves will object somewhat at first to a change 
from unpasteurized to pasteurized skim-milk (especially 
if the latter is fed at a temperature of 150° F.) but they 
will soon begin to like it. 

A difficulty that has always been experienced in pasteur- 
izing skim-milk is the foam that results from the heating. 
Various so-called "foam killers" have been placed upon 



226 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



the market which have been more or less successful in 
obviating this trouble. 

Fig. 69 illustrates a method of handling skim-milk 
which prevents, to a great extent the difficulty usually ex- 
perienced from foam. 



EXHAUST STEAM 



PASTELURIZtR 



SKIM 



CAF>Aci-r V 



MILK ~r/\rsjK 



10.000 LBS. 



skim milk 
we:igme:r. 



o 



SKIM MILK 
PUMP 



Fig. 69.— Skim-milk tank and pasteurizer. 



The pasteurizer is placed on top of the skim-milk tank 
and the pasteurized skim-milk flows through a pipe which 
runs to wathin an inch or an inch and a half of the bottom 
of the tank. A pipe so placed will tend to destroy a por- 
tion of the foam formed in the heater. The tank is of 
ample size to hold the foam not thus destroyed, which, 
during the early summer, is quite considerable. The larger 
the tank the less trouble will be experienced from the 
foam. 



CHAPTER XXL 

HANDLING AND TESTING CREAM. 

The rapid introduction of hand separators among^ 
creamery patrons during the past few years has con- 
fronted many creamery operators with the problem of 
how this cream should be handled to make the best quality 
oi butter from it. The practice of receiving cream instead 
of milk at the creamery is growing. Creameries which 
only a few years since were running entirely on the whole 
milk plan have now changed more or less to cream gather- 
ing plants. Indeed many creameries that are now being 
built operate entirely on the hand separator plan. 

Sampling. Where the cream is delivered to the cream- 
ery in a sweet condition, composite samples may be taken 
in the same manner as with milk. Usually, however,, 
where a great deal of hand separator cream is handled^ 
some of it is delivered too sour for composite samplings 
In this case it becomes necessary to test the cream as ofter^ 
as it is delivered. 

Where cream of varying degrees of acidity is received,, 
the following method of sampling and weighing is recom- 
mended : With a long-handled conical dipper thoroughly 
mix the cream in the can and then pour into a small 
glass tube enough of it for a duplicate test. Weigh the 
cream in the cans in which it is delivered and subtract 
from the gross weight the weight of the can which should 
be marked upon it in plain figures. The cream is now^ 
emptied into one or two receiving vats, one provided for 



228 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

sweet cream, the other for that which has more or less 
soured. 

After all the cream has been sampled and weighed, the 
tubes containing the samples for testing are placed in a 
water bath at a temperature of 120° where the cream is 
warmed preparatory to testing. A suitable rack, made 
to fit the water bath, should be provided for the cream 
tubes. When the cream has become sufficiently warmed 
in the tubes, it is poured and repoured a few times and a 
sample weighed out by transferring the cream to the test 
bottle by means of an automatic pipette like that shown 
in Fig. 70. This consists essentially of a pipette with a 
rubber bulb at one end by means of which the cream 
is sucked into the pipette and again forced out of it. This 
method of forcing permits a rapid delivery of the cream. 

Testing. Accurate tests of cream can not be secured 
by measuring the sample into the bottle as is done in the 
case of milk. The reason for this is that the weight of 
cream varies with its richness. The richer the cream the 
less it weighs per unit volume. This is illustrated in the 
following table by Farrington and Woll : 

Weight of fresh separator cream delivered by a 17.6 c.c. 

pipette. 



Per cent of fat 


Specific gravity 


Weig-ht of cream 


in cream. 


(weighed). 


in grams. 


10 


1.023 


17.9 


15 


1.012 


17.7 


20 


1.008 


17.3 


25 


1.002 


17.2 


30 


.996 


17.0 


35 


.980 


16.4 


40 


.966 


16.3 


45 


.950 


16.2 


50 


.947 


15.8 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



229 



These figures plainly show that justice can not be done 
to patrons where cream is sampled with a 17.6 c.c. 
pipette. Cream is therefore always weighed on a cream 
balance (Fig. 7.), the amount necessary for a full sample 
being eighteen grams. To save time in 
weighing place a cream bottle on each side 
of the scales and balance. Then place an 
eighteen-gram weight on one side and 
pour cream into the bottle on the other 
side until the scales balance. Now re- 
move the weight and pour cream into the 
empty bottle until the scales again bal- 
ance. The same operation is repeated 
with the next two bottles, and so on. 

Special Cream Bottles and Tester. 
Since most cream tests above 30%, a full 
sample of it can not be tested in a 30% 
bottle. Fig. 71 illustrates a cream tester 
which is specially designed to whirl a 
long-necked cream bottle graduated at 
55%. At the left in the figure is shown 
one of these bottles. Another cream bot- 
tle graduated to 55% is shown in Fig. 
72. These bottles have the advantage of permitting the 
use of a full sample for testing which insures a more 
accurate reading than is possible where only half a sample 
of cream is taken for a test. 

With proper care, however, cream may be tested in an 
ordinary tester by using the 30% cream bottler When 
these bottles are used only half a sample (8 grams) of 
cream is weighed out and a corresponding amount of acid 
used. 

Amount of Acid. It is evident that the richer the 



Fig. 70.— Auto- 
matic pipette. 



230 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



^ream the less the amount of acid necessary for a test, tor 
acid does not act upon the fat but spends its energy upon 




Fig. 71. -Cream tester. 



the serum, which becomes less the richer the cream. 14 or 
15 c.c, of acid is usually sufficient for 18 grams of ordinary 
cream. 

In case 18 grams of cream are divided between two 
30% bottles and the same quantity of water is added, the 
full measure of acid may be used with satisfactory 
results. 

It must be remembered that when only half a sample of 
cream is used for a test the fat in the neck must 
always be multiplied by 2 to get the correct reading. 

Necessity of Grading Cream. It is a fact which can 
not be disputed that in most of the gathered cream 
factories some cream is received sweet and some more 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



231 



or less sour. Hence the necessity of grading. 



The 



sour cream should be placed in a class 
by itself and the same with the sweet 
cream. 

The butter maker has far better con- 
trol over sweet cream than he has over 
sour and can therefore make a better 
quality of butter from it. It is, then, no 
more than just that the patron who takes 
good care of his cream and endeavors to 
deliver it often, should receive more for 
it than the man who is careless and de- 
livers the cream only once a week. In- 
deed grading cream seems to be the only 
resource left to the butter maker to in- 
duce his patrons to deliver sweet cream. 
W^iere it is desired to churn all the 
cream in the same churning, a better 
quality of butter is possible when the 
sweet cream is ripened by itself with a 
heavy starter and the sour cream added 
to this some hours previous to churning. 
Adding sour cream to sweet cream is equivalent to add- 
ing so much starter of a kind not likely to produce very 
good results. Moreover when a fine flavored starter is 
added to such a mixture its influence is small compared 
with what it is when added to sweet cream, because acid is 
a hindrance to the development of the lactic acid bacteria. 
Necessity of Pasteurizing. Experiments have abun- 
dantly proven that average cream, whether sweet or sour, 
will make a better quality of butter when pasteurized. 
This subject is fully discussed in the chapter on pasteur- 
ization. 




Fig. 72.-55% 
Cream bottle. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION. 

In warm climates and in localities where ice is not 
obtainable or only so at a high cost, cold may be produced 
by artificial means known as mechanical refrigeration. 
This system of refrigeration is also finding its way into 
creameries that are able to procure ice at a moderate cost 
but which are seeking more satisfactory means of control- 
ling the temperature of their cream, refrigerator, make 
room, etc. 

Refrigerating Machines. There are four kinds of 
machines used for refrigerating purposes: (i) vacuum 
machines in which water is used as the refrigerating 
medium; (2) absorption machines in which a liquid of a 
low boiling point is used as the refrigerating medium, the 
vapors being absorbed by water and again separated from 
it by distillation; (3) compression machines which operate 
practically the same as the absorption machines except 
that the vapors in this case are compressed instead of 
absorbed; and (4) mixed absorption and compression ma- 
chines. 

Most of the machines in use at the present time 
belong to the compression type ; the following discussion 
will therefore confine itself strictly to this class of 
machines. 

Principle. The principle employed in mechanical re- 
frigeration is the production of cold by the evaporation 
of liquids which have a low boiling point, like liquid 
ammonia, liquid carbonic acid, ether, etc. 

232 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 233 

When a liquid evaporates or changes into the gaseous 
state it absorbs a definite amount of heat called heat of 
vaporization or "latent" heat. Thus to change water from 
212° F. to steam at 212° F. requires a considerable 
amount of heat which is apparently lost, hence the term 
latent (hidden) heat. 

Ether changes into its gas at a much lower temperature 
than water which is illustrated by its instant evaporation 
when poured upon the hand. The heat of the hand in this 
case is sufficient to cause vaporization and the sensation 
of cold indicates that a certain amount of heat has been 
abstracted from the hand in the process. 

Manifestly for refrigerating purposes a liquid must be 
used that can be evaporated at a very low temperature; 
for the cold in mechanical refrigeration is produced by 
the evaporation of the liquid in iron pipes, the heat for 
the purpose being absorbed from the room in which the 
pipes are laid. Anhydrous ammonia has thus far proven 
to be the best refrigerant for ordinary refrigeration. 

Anhydrous Ammonia (Refrigerant). This substance 
is a gas at ordinary temperatures but liquifies at 30° F. 
under one atmospheric pressure. In practical refrigera- 
tion the ammonia is liquified at rather high temperatures 
by subjecting it to pressure. The ammonia is alternately 
evaporated and liquified so that it may be used over and 
over again almost indefinitely. 

Circulation of Ammonia. The cycle of operations in 
mechanical refrigeration is as follows : The liquid am- 
monia starts on its course from a liquid receiver, and 
enters the refrigerating coils in which it evaporates, ab- 
sorbing a large amount of heat in the process. By means 
of a compression pump, operated by an engine, the am- 
monia vapors are forced in the condenser coils where the 



234 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

ammonia, under pressure, is again liquified by running 
cold water over the coils. From the condenser coils it 
enters the liquid receiver, thence again on its journey 
through the refrigerating coils. 

The intensity of refrigeration is regulated by an ex- 
pansion valve, which is placed between the liquid receiver 
and the refrigerating coils. This valve may be adjusted 
so as to admit the desired quantity of liquid ammonia to 
the coils. 

Systems of Refrigeration. There are two ways in 
which the cooling may be accomplished by mechanical 
refrigeration: (i) by evaporating the liquid ammonia 
in a series of pipes placed in the room to be refrigerated ; 
and (2) by evaporating the liquid ammonia in a series of 
coils laid in a tank of brine and forcing the cold brine 
into coils laid in the room to be refrigerated. The former 
is known as the direct expansion system, the latter as the 
indirect expansion or brine system. 

Brine System. In creameries where the machinery is 
run only five or six hours a day the brine system is the 
more satisfactory as it permits the storing of a large 
amount of cold in the brine, which may be drawn upon 
when the machinery is not running. 

The brine tank is preferably located near the ceiling in 
the refrigerator where it will serve practically the same 
purpose as an overhead ice box. In addition to this, the 
refrigerator should contain a coil of direct expansion 
pipes which may be used when extra cold is desired. 

Brine from the above tank may be used for cooling 
cream by conducting it through coils which are movable 
in the cream vat ; it may also be conducted through sta- 
tionary pipes placed in the make room for the purpose 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



235 



of controlling the temperature during the warm summer 
months. 

The brine is kept circulating by means of a brine pump. 

Strength of Brine. The brine is usually made from 
common. salt (sodium chloride). The stronger the brine 
the lower the temperature at which it will freeze. Its 
strength should be determined by the lowest temperature 
to be carried in the brine tank. The following table from 
Siebel shows the freezing temperature as well as the 
specific heat of brine of different strengths : 



Percentag-e of salt by weig-ht. 


Pounds of 
salt per 
gallon of 
solution. 


Freezing 
point (F.). 


Specific 
heat. 


1 


0.084 
0.169 
0.256 
0.344 
0.523 
0.708 
0.897 
1.092 
1.389 
1.928 
2.488 
2.610 


30.5 
29.3 

27.8 
26.6 
23.9 
21.2 
18.7 
16.0 
12.2 
6.1 
0.5 
-1.1 


.992 


2 .. 


.9^4 


3 


.976 


4 


.968 


6 


.946 


8 


.919 


10 


.892 


12..... 


.874 


15 


.855 


20 


.829 


25 


783 


26 


.771 







The fact that the specific heat grows less as the brine 
becomes stronger shows it to be wise not to have the 
solution stronger than necessary, because the less the 
specific heat the less heat a given amount of brine is able 
to take up. 

Refrigerating Capacity. When speaking of a machine 
of one ton refrigerating capacity, we.mean that it will 
produce, in the course of twenty-four hours, the amount 
of cold that would be given oft' by one ton of ice at 32° F. 



236 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

melting into water at the same temperature. Its actual 
ice making capacity is usually about 50% less. 

Size of Compressor. In a moderately well insulated 
creamery handling from twenty to twenty-five thousand 
pounds of milk daily, a four-ton compressor will be large 
enough. With a compressor of this size the machinery 
will not have to be run more than five or six hours a day. 
If the machinery is run longer than this a smaller com- 
pressor will do the work. 

Power Required to Operate. The power required per 
ton of refrigeration is less the larger the machine. With 
a four-ton compressor the power required is from two to 
two and one-half horse power per ton of refrigerating 
capacity in twenty-four hours. 

Refrigerating Pipes. The refrigerating pipes vary 
from one to two inches in diameter. With moderately 
good insulation it is estimated that by the direct expansion 
system one running foot of two-inch piping will keep a 
room of forty cubic feet content at a temperature of 32° 
F. With brine nearly twice this amount of piping would 
be necessary. 

For cooling the brine in the brine tank, about 140 feet 
of 1 54 -inch pipes are required per ton of refrigerating 
capacity. 

Expense of Operating. When a refrigerating plant 
has once been installed and charged with the necessary 
ammonia, the principal expense connected with it will be 
the power required to operate the compressor. This 
power in a creamery is supplied by the creamery engine. 
Ihe ammonia, being used over and over again, will add 
but a trifle to the -running expenses. Nor can the water 
used for cooling the ammonia vapors add much to the 
cost of operating. It is true, however, that the refrigera- 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 



J.6i 



ting- plant will require some of the butter maker's time 
and attention, but this is probably no more than would be 
consumed in the handling: of ice in the creamery. 

Charging and Operating an Ammonia Plant. This 
subject is so ably discussed in The Engineer by H. H. 
Kelley that the author feels he can do no better than 
present the following extracts from that article. 

"When about to start an ice or refrigerating plant, the 
first thing necessary is to see that the system is charged 
with the proper amount of ammonia. Before the ammonia 
is put in, however, all air and moisture must be removed ; 
otherwise the efficiency of the system will be seriously 
interfered with. Special valves are usually provided for 
discharging the air, which is removed from the system 
by starting the compressor and pumping the air out, the 
operation of the gas cylinder being just the reverse of that 
when it is working ammonia gas. It is practically impos- 
sible to get all the air out of the entire system by this 
means, so that some other course must be taken to remove 
any remaining air after the compressor has been started at 
regular work. This can be accomplished by admitting the 
ammonia a little at a time, permitting the air to escape 
through a purge valve, the air being thus expelled by dis- 
placement. The cylinder containing the anhydrous am- 
monia is connected to the charging valve by a suitable 
pipe, and the valve opened. The compressor is then kept 
running slowly with the suction and discharge valves wide 
open and the expansion valve closed. When one cylinder 
is emptied put another in its place, being careful to close 
the charging valve before attempting to remove the empty 
c}linder, opening it when the fresh cylinder is connected 
up. 

"From sixty to seventy-five per cent of the full charge is 



238 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

sufficient to start with so that the air may have an oppor- 
tunity of escaping with as Httle loss of ammonia as possi- 
ble. An additional quantity of ammonia may then be put 
in each day until the full charge has been introduced. 
When the ammonia cylinders have been emptied and a 
charge of, say, seventy-five per cent of the full amount has 
been introduced, the charging valve is closed and the ex- 
pansion valve opened. The glass gauge on the ammonia 
receiver will indicate the depth of ammonia. The appear- 
ance of frost on the pipe leading to the coils and the 
cooling of the brine in the tank will indicate that enough 
ammonia has been introduced to start with. It is some- 
times difficult to completely empty an ammonia cylinder 
without first applying heat. The process of cooling being 
the same when the ammonia expands from the cylinder 
into the system as when leaving the expansion valve, a 
low temperature is produced and the cylinder and con- 
nections become covered with frost. When this occurs the 
cylinder must be slightly warmed in order to be able to 
get all the ammonia out of it. The ammonia cylinders, 
when filled, should never be subjected to rough handling 
and are preferably kept in a cool place free from any lia- 
bility to accident. The fact that ammonia is soluble in 
water should be well understood by persons charging a 
refrigerating system, or working about the plant. One 
part of water will absorb about 800 parts of ammonia gas 
and in case of accident to the ammonia piping or machine, 
water should be employed to absorb the escaping gas. 
Persons employed about a plant of this kind should be 
provided with some style of respirator, the simplest form 
of which is a wet cloth held over the mouth and nose. 

"After starting the compressor at the proper speed and 
adjusting the regulating valve note the temperature of 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 239 

the delivery pipe, and if there is a tendency to heat open 
it wider, and vice versa. This valve should be carefully 
regulated until the temperature of the delivery pipe is 
practically the same as the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser. With too light a charge of am- 
monia the delivery pipe will become heated even when 
the regulating valve is wide open. As a general thing 
when the plant is working properly the temperature of 
the refrigerator is about 15° lower than the brine being 
used, the temperature of the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser will be about 15° lower than that of 
the condenser, the pointers on the gauges will vibrate the 
same distance at each stroke of the compressor and the 
frost on the pipes entering and leaving the refrigerator 
will be about the same. By placing the ear close to the 
expansion valve the ammonia can be heard passing 
through it, the sound being uniform and continuous when 
everything is working properly. 

''When air is present the flow of ammonia will be more 
or less intermittent, which irregularity is generally notice- 
able through a change in the usual sound heard at the ex- 
pansion valve. The pressure in the condenser will also be 
higher and the efifect of the apparatus as a whole will 
be changed, and, of course, not so good. These changes 
will be quickly noticed by a person accustomed to the 
conditions obtaining when everything is in order and 
working properly. 

''The removal of air is accomplished in practically the 
same manner as when chargirf^ the system, permitting 
it to escape through the purging valve a little at a time 
so as not to lose any more gas than is absolutely necessary. 

''The presence of oil or water in the system is generally 
detected by shocks occurring in the compressor cylinder. 



240 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

"In nearly all plants the presence of oil in the system of 
piping is unavoidable. The oil used for lubricating pur- 
poses, especially at the piston rod stuffing boxes, works 
into the cylinders and is carried with the hot gas into the 
ammonia piping, where it never fails to cause trouble. 
The method of removing the air from the system has 
already been referred to, but the removal of oil is accomp- 
lished by means of an oil separator. This is placed in 
the main pipe between the compressor and the condenser, 
and is of about the size of the ammonia receiver. Some- 
times another oil separator is placed in the return pipe 
close to the compressor, which serves to eliminate any 
remaining oil in the warmer gas and to remove pieces of 
scale and other foreign matter which, if permitted to enter 
the compressor cylinder, would tend to destroy it in a 
very short time. 

''The oil, which always gets into the system sooner or 
later and in greater or less quantity, depending upon the 
care exercised to avoid it, acts as an insulator, and pre- 
vents the rapid transfer of heat from the ammonia to the 
pipe that ought to obtain, and also occupies considerable 
space that is required for the ammonia where the best re- 
sults are to be obtained." 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



creame:ry book-kee;ping. 



The object of book-keeping is to keep a record of busi- 
ness transactions, enabling the proprietor or proprietors 
at any time to determine the true condition of the business. 

In most businesses usually one of two forms of book- 
keeping is followed : either double entry which makes use 
of three books — day book, journal, and ledger — or single 
entry which makes use of only two books, a day book or 
journal, and ledger. 

The day book contains a detailed record of business 
transactions. Entries are made in this book as soon as 
the transaction occurs.. 

The journal contains the debits and credits arranged 
in convenient form for transferring to the ledger. 

The ledger contains the final results. 

Debits and Credits. These words are usually abbre- 
viated Dr. and Cr. respectively. The debits and credits in 
any business transaction are determined by the following 
rule: debit whatez'er costs value; credit zi'hatever pro- 
duces value. In a journal entry the sum of the debits and 
the sum of the credits must be equal. 

Double and Single Entry Book=keeping. While 
double entry is the most complete form of keeping a busi- 
ness record, it entails too much work for creameries, 
which have but a limited time to devote to keeping books. 

Single entry book-keeping when properly carried out 
has proved very satisfactory and most creameries follow 
this method in a more or less modified form. 

241 



242 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



In the following pages a simple and approved method of 
book-keeping is presented which may be followed by any 
creamery whether proprietary, co-operative, or otherwise. 
In this method the following books and papers are made 
use of: 

(i) Day book, (2) order book, (3) sales book, (4) 
cash book, (5) pay roll register, (6) ledger, (7) milk 
sheet, (8) milk book, (9) test book, and (10) butter slips. 

Day Book. All transactions made at the creamery 
should be at once recorded in the day book. At the close 
of the day or at some convenient time the records made in 
the day book are transferred to the order book, sales book, 
or cash book, according to the transaction. The following 
examples illustrate the manner of making records in the 
day book. 



January 6, 1900. 










Sold to J. D. Steele & Co. on account 
1 100 lbs. of butter @ 24c 


$20 
8 
4 


00 
50 
00 


$264 

32 
33 


00 


Bought of Newman & Co., for cash, 1 san- 
itary milk Dumo . . 




5 gal. butter color @ $1.70 

20 gal. separator oil @ 20c 

Bought of H. Chandler on account 11 
cords of wood (cO $3 00 


50 
00 







When payment is made for goods at the time the 
transaction occurs the term "for cash" is used. When 
payment is made some time after the transaction occurs 
the term "on account" is used. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



243 



Order and Sales Books. All purchases and sales are 
recorded in the manner illustrated below : 



. 


o o o o o 


s 


o o o o o 


"u 


O CO O 1— 1 "* 


cu 




(M T-H T— t ! 




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r rep 






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244 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Cash Book. Cash book records are illustrated below : 

CASH BOOK 



Date. 



Cash received. 



Mar. 1 




" 10 


4 


" 14 


4 


" 20 


5 


" 24 


5 


•' 24 


5 


•' 28 


5 


" 28 


5 


" 30 


5 



Balance 
Butter. . 



From Feb 

WiUson&Co 

Willson&Co 

Nicholson & Fish. 
Willson & Son. . . . 
Nicholson & Fish. 
Willson & Son.... 
J. C. R. & Co..... 
Nicholson & Fish 



$181 


00 




180 


00 




208 


00 




374 


50 




249 


90 




139 


80 




201 


00 




10 


10 




848 


38 


$2, 392 



* Sales book Page, 
—(monthly record). 



Date, 

1898. 



Cash paid. 



Mar. 10 


§ 6 


" 11 


6 


" 18 


7 


" 24 


7 


*' 27 


7 


^' 27 


7 


" 28 


7 


" 29 


7 


" 31 


7 


" 31 


7 



Butter tubs — 

Tinning 

Butter printer. 
Cleaningpo'der 
Boiler repair. . . 

Salary 

Wood 

Sundries 

Patrons 

Balance 



Thorbin & Son . . , 

Paul Burger 

R. S. D. & Co. . . . 
R. S. D. & Co.... 
J. R. Smith & Co 

John Smith 

W. Saunders .. . 

John Jones 

Monthly dues. .. 
To new account 



$90 


00 




3 


00 




20 


00 




11 


00 




14 


00 




95 


00 




55 


00 




4 


35 




1,902 


48 




197 


85 


$2,392 







§ Order book page. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



245 



Pay Roll Register. Each patron's monthly account is 
recorded in the pay roll register as illustrated below : 



PAY ROLL REGISTER. 



Date, 

1898. 


1 

a 

1 

2 


Name. 


i 






6 
I 


4^ 

a 

o 

a 
< 


O 




1* 


April 5 
" 5 


John Smith 

PaulWirth 


7,850 
4,575 


3.9 
4.0 


306.15 
183.00 


$0 20 
20 


$61 23 
36 60 


$1.48 


$59 75 
36 60 


123V 
124V 



V Means paid. 

The Ledger. Where a good, permanent, and easily 
accessible record is desirable, the main items of all trans- 
actions should be posted under suitable heads in the 
ledger. Where there is liable to be a frequent change of 
bookkeepers the additional work involved in keeping a 
ledger is well justified. 

In case monthly payments are made at the creamery all 
accounts should be closed once a month and those with 
different individuals should be kept separate. The fol- 
lowing illustrates a ledger account with a butter firm in 
New York. 



Dr. 



John Johnson & Co. 



Cr. 



1898. 






New York City. 


Sept. 3 

" 7 


Balance 

Sale 


*12 
12 
13 


$90 40 
103 38 

84 50 


Sept. 6 
" 18 
" 31 


Check 

Check 

Balance 


^14 
14 
14 


$80 35 
139 85 


" 20 


Sale 


58 08 


Oct. 1 


Balance 


13 


58 08 










*Sale 


s book page. 






1 Cash b 


ook page. 







246 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Below is illustrated a ledger account with a creamery 
supply house in Chicago : 



Dr. 






J. D. Murray & Co. 






Or 


1898. 






Chicago. 


Aug. 4 
" 11 


Check 

Check 


*15 
15 
15 


$29 00 
64 50 
19 38 


Aug. 1 

5 

" 19 


Balance.... 

Order 

Order 


1il6 
16 
16 


S18 50 
70 38 


" 31 


Balance 


24 00 








Sept. 1 


Balance 


16 


19 38 


*Casl 


1 book page. 






1 Order 


book page. 







The following illustrates a ledger record with a patron 
of the creamery : 



Dr. 






William Sampson. 




c 


'r. 


1898. 










Piketown. 


August 
Sept. 


31 
31 


Check 

Check 


$61 50 
83 92 


August 
Sept. 


Milk 

Milk 


$61 50 
83 92 


19 



*Pay roil register page. 

Milk Sheet and Milk Book. Immediately after milk- 
is weighed it is recorded upon a milk sheet placed in the 
intake. This sheet consists of heavy paper with the date, 
name, and number of the patron upon it. The names 
should be arranged in alphabetical order. A suitable milk 
sheet is illustrated in Fig. y2>- 

Where care is taken in recording the milk upon the 
milk sheet, the milk book may be dispensed with. In 
that case a record of the milk is preserved by filing the 
milk sheets after each patron's total has been transferred 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



247 



to the pay roll register. In case, however, a careful daily 
record of the milk is to be preserved, it is better to copy 
the milk from the milk sheet into a milk book in which 
a record may be preserved for a long time. 





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Fig. 73.— Milk sheet. 



Test Book. A permanent record of milk tests is made 
in the test book. The following illustrates the method of 
keeping such a record : 



248 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Patron's name. 
1898. 


< 


s 
















Test No 


1 


2 
















Date— Aug. 7 


3.8 


4.3 




















"15.. 


3.9 


4.3 




















" 23 


3.8 


4.1 





















Butter Slips. It is customary with creamery patrons 
to take the butter for their use at the creamery and have 
the value of it deducted from their check. If all butter 
thus taken were to be recorded in the day book and from 
this transferred to a patron's butter book, it would involve 
a great deal of labor for the butter maker. Hence the use 
of butter slips. These are small slips of paper on which 
the small butter accounts are kept until the close of the 
month. Below is illustrated one of these slips : 




CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 249 

The butter slips are all placed on file until the close of 
the month when each patron's total butter charged to him 
is found from these slips. The charge thus found is 
entered directly in the column marked "charge" in the 
pay roll register, while the slips are preserved for future 
reference. 



APPENDIX. 

Composition of Butter. According to analyses re- 
ported by various experiment stations, American butter 
has the following average composition: 

Per cent. 

Water 13 

Fat 83 

Proteids i 

Salt 3 

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con- 
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids not fat. This is 
illustrated in the following figures by Richmond: 



Total solids. 


Solids 
not fat. 


Fat. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


32.50 




6.83 


25.67 


37.59 




6.14 


31.45 


50.92 




5.02 


45.90 


55.05 




4.65 


50.40 


57.99 




4.17 


53.82 


68.18 




3.30 


64.88 



The same authority also reports the following detailed 
analysis of a thick cream : 

250 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



251 



Per cent. 

Water 39.37 

Fat 56.09 

Sugar 2.29 

Proteids i . 57 

Ash 38 

Composition of Buttermilk. According to Vieth, 
buttermilk from riDened cream has the following compo- 
sition : 

Per cent. 
Water 90 . 39 



Fat 

JMilk sugar 4 

Lactic acid 

Proteids ; 3 

Ash 



Creamery buttermilk should not average above .2% fat. 

Composition of Skim=milk. Richmond has found 
the following average composition of separator skim- 
milk : 

Per cent. 



Water 

Fat 

Milk sugar 
Casein . . . . 
Albumen . . 
Ash 



90 


50 




10 


4 


95 


3 


15 




42 




78 



COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THER- 
MOMETER SCALES. 



Thermometer. 


F. 


C. 


Boiling point (water) 


212 
32 


100 











Difference between boiling and freezing point 


180 


100 



252 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



From the above it will be seen that one degree Centi- 
grade is equivalent to 9-5 degrees Fahrenheit. Hence 
the following rules : 

1. To change C. into F. reading, multiply by 9-5 and 
add 32. 

Example: 50°C = (50 X |) + 32 = 112°F. 

2. To change F. into C. reading, subtract 32 and 
multiply by 5-9. 

Example: 182°F = (182 - 32) X f =83FC. 

METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

This system was devised by the French people and has 
very extensive application wherever accuracy in weights 
and measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in 
ordinary weights and measures are given in the follow- 
ing table : 



Ordinary weights and measures. 


Equivalents in metric system. 




28.35 grrams. 




0.9464 liter. 




3.7854 liters. 




29.57 cubic centimete'-s (c.c.) 




0.4536 kilogram. 




64.8 milligrams. 




2.54 centimeters. 




0.3048 meter. 







CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 253 

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS FOR A CO-OPERATIVE CREAM- 
ERY ASSOCIATION."^ 

Articles of Agreement of the Association. 

We the undersigned residents of the county of , 

State of , do hereby associate ourselves together 

as a co-operative association under the laws of the State 
of and have adopted the following constitution : 

Article I. 

This association shall be known as the 

Association. 

Article 11. 

The object of this association shall be the manufacture 
of butter from milk and cream bought on the fat basis. 

Article III. 

The regular meetings of this association shall be held 

annually on the day of the month of 

Special meetings may be called by the president, or on 
written request of one-third of the members of the asso- 
ciation, provided three days' notice of such meeting is 
sent to all members. 

Article IV. 

The officers of this association shall be a president, 
secretary, treasurer, and three trustees, who shall be 
elected annually at the regular annual meeting. The 

* In drawing up this constitution and by-laws, free use has been made of 
Vye's Creamery Accounting and Farrington & Woll's Testing Milk and Its 
Products. 



254 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

president or secretary shall also act as general manager 
of the creamery. 

Article V. 

The duties of the president shall be to preside at all 
meetings of the association, sign all drafts and docu- 
ments, and pay all money which comes into his posses- 
sion by virtue of his office to the treasurer, taking his 
receipt therefor. 

The secretary shall keep a record of all the meetings of 
the association and make and sign all orders upon the 
treasurer. He shall conduct the correspondence and gen- 
eral business of the association and keep a correct finan- 
cial account between the association and its members. 

The treasurer shall receive and receipt for all moneys 
belonging to the association, and pay out the same only 
upon orders which shall be signed by the president and 
the secretary. He shall give bonds in such amount as 
the association shall prescribe. 

The president, secretary, and three trustees shall con- 
stitute a board of directors, whose duties shall be to audit 
the accounts of the association, invest its funds, and 
determine all compensations. They shall prescribe and 
enforce the rules and regulations of the creamery. They 
shall cause to be kept a record of the weights and tests 
of the milk and cream received from each patron, of the 
products sold, and of the running expenses, and shall 
divide among the patrons the money due them each 
month. 

The board of directors shall cause the secretary to 
make, in writing, a report at the annual meeting of the 
association, setting forth in detail the gross milk receipts, 
the net receipts of products sold, and all other receipts, 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 255 

the amount paid for milk and running expenses, and give 
a complete statement of all other matters pertaining to 
the business of the association. They shall also make 
some provision for the withdrawal of any member from 
the association, and make a report in detail to the asso- 
ciation at the annual meeting. 

The board of directors shall borrow a sum of money 

not exceeding thousand dollars to be used by 

them solely for the purpose of building and equipping 
a creamery. 

Article VI. 

Ten members of the association, or three of the board 
of directors, shall constitute a quorum to transact busi- 
ness. 

Article VII. 

Each member shall be entitled to one vote only at any 
meeting of the association. New members -may be ad- 
mitted as provided by the by-laws. Members shall be per- 
mitted to withdraw only as provided by the by-laws. 

Article VIII. 

The constitution may be amended at any annual meet- 
ing, or at any special meeting, provided that two-thirds 
of all the members present vote in favor of such a change. 

By-Laivs of the Association. 

1. The milk of each patron shall be tested not less 
than twice a month. 

2. No milk shall be received at the creamery later 
than ten o'clock a. m. 



256 CRHAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

3. One cent for each pound of butter fat received at 
the creamery shall be reserved to form a sinking fund. 

4. The treasurer shall give bonds in the sum of 

dollars, the bond to be approved by the 

board of directors. 

5. Patrons shall furnish all of the milk from all the 
cows promised at the organization of the creamery. 

6. Nothing but sweet and pure milk shall be accepted 
at the creamery. 

7. All milk received at the creamery shall be paid for 
on the basis of the amount of fat it contains. 

8. Dividends shall be made on the twentieth day of 
each month. 

THE WATER CONTENT OF BUTTER. 

The question as to the amount of water that butter 
should contain has been very much discussed during the 
past year. There is no question that a moderate amount 
of water is necessary to secure the best quality. When, 
for example, butter contains as little as 7% water it 
assumes a lardy texture and does not spread well on 
bread. 

The maximum amount of water that may safely be 
incorporated has as yet not been satisfactorily demon- 
strated. Circular No. 39 by Alvord of the U. S. Depart- 
metit of Agriculture shows that the best tubs of butter in 
the National Educational Butter Test contained between 
11% and 12% of water. According to findings at the 
Iowa Station, a water content of 16% is as favorable to 
good quality as 12%. Indeed it is reported that if it 
were not for the law which fixes the upper limit at 16%, 
a water content even higher than this might be recom- 
mended. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 257 

Manifestly the more water butter contains the larger 
the yield from a given quantity of cream, other conditions 
the same. It might therefore be the part of wisdom to 
incorporate the maximum of water consistent with the 
production of the best quality of butter if it were not for 
the danger of going to the extreme. It seems that in this 
case as in others, Monrad's advice "avoid extremes" is 
particularly applicable. 

In the following paragraphs are set forth some of the 
main factors that tend to increase the percentage of water 
in butter: 

1. Churning and working butter at a moderately high 
temperature. The temperature must, however, not be so 
high as to injure the texture or cause an undue loss of 
fat in the buttermilk, 

2. Churning butter to moderately large granules. 
The larger the granules the more water will be retained 
in the butter. But they should in no case be larger than 
the size of half a pea. 

3. Distributing the salt with the least amount of work- 
ing. The more the butter is worked the less water it 
will contain. 

4. The less salt butter contains the higher its water 
content. 

5. Moderately warm wash water will give a higher 
water content than cold. 

6. Short intervals between the workings are more 
favorable to a high water content than long. 

It has been claimed that pasteurizing reduces the per- 
centage of water in butter. This, however, needs further 
proof. The author has found that the yield of butter 
from pasteurized and unpasteurized cream is practically 
the same. With the same loss of fat in the buttermilk, 



258 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

this could not be expected if the water content differed 
to any great extent. 

SKIMMING STATIONS. 

In many locahties where there is not sufficient milk 
to warrant the establishment of a creamery, skimming 
stations are built which separate the cream from the milk 
and deliver it to a creamery for churning. Hundreds 
of such stations are scattered throughout the country and 
they are serving a most useful purpose. 

The main equipment of a skimming station consists of 
boiler, engine, separator, weigh can, scales, skim-milk 
weigher, receiving vat, cream vat, cream cooler, milk 
heater and pump, skim-milk pump, Babcock tester, ten 
gallon cans, skim-milk pasteurizer, skim-milk tank, water 
tank, and preferably a cream pasteurizer. 

CLEANLINESS AND CLEANING. 

There is perhaps no business in which cleanliness counts 
for so much as in dairying. Two reasons for this are : 
( I ) that milk furnishes a medium in which a large num- 
ber of different types of bacteria find easy development, 
and (2) that the bacteria which are helpful to the butter 
maker are found only in clean places and in a pure atmos- 
phere, while those of an undesirable character are always 
associated with filth. 

To keep everything thoroughly clean in a creamery is 
of the highest importance to the success of the butter 
maker, and requires considerable vigilance on his part. 

Utensils like pails, dippers, cream vats, and cream 
coolers, should be heavily tinned and be as free as possible 
from seams, which afford good breeding places for bac- 
teria. Dippers with solid handles are preferred, as leaks 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 259 

in hollow dipper handles are not easily detected. Leaks 
are an unmitigated nuisance in a creamery. Thev should 
be guarded against as dangers of the worst character. No 
creamery is complete without a good soldering outfit. 

Corroded or rusted tinware is sure to spoil any milk or 
cream that comes in contact with it. Milk delivered in 
rusty cans should positively be refused at the creamery. 
The cleaning of milk and cream vessels is best carried 
out as follows : first, rinse with moderately warm water ; 
second, scrub with moderately hot water containing some 
alkali ; third, rinse in hot water ; fourth, steam thoroughly ; 
and fifth, expose to sunlight if possible. 

Vats, printers, etc., cannot be satisfactorily steamed; 
they should be scalded with hot water. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

Thanks are due to the following parties for the use of 
electrotypes: Louis F. Nafis & Co., Creamery Package 
lALfg Co., A. H. Reid & Co., Fargo Creamerv Supplv 
House, Cornish, Curtis & Green, DeLaval Separator Co , 
Sharpies Separator Co., Stuges & Burn ALf'g Co., Star 
lAIilk Cooler Co., Jensen M'f'g Co., The Wager Glass 
Works, Owatonna M'f'g Co., and Emil Greiner. 



GLOSSARY. 

Albumenoids. — Substances rich in albumen, like the 
white of an egg which is nearly pure albumen. 

Anaerobic. — Living without free oxygen. 

Calibrating. — Determining the caliber of the neck of a 
test bottle in order to ascertain the accuracy of the 
scale upon it. 

Carbohydrates. — Substances like starch and sugar. 

Centrifugal Force. — That force by which a body mov- 
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion. 

Chemical Composition. — This refers to the elements or 
substances of which a body is composed. 

Colloidal. — Resembling glue or jelly. 

Concussion. — The act of shaking or agitating. 

Constituents. — The components or elements of a sub- 
' stance. 

Dead Center. — That position of the engine when the 
crank arm and the piston rod are in a straight line. 

Dividers. — An instrument used in reading tests. 

Emulsion. — A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain- 
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. 

Enzymes. — Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do 
not. possess Hfe. 

Fibrin. — A substance which at ordinary temperatures 
forms a fine network through milk which impedes 
the rising of the fat globules. 

Foremilk. — The first few streams of milk drawn from 
each teat. 

Galactase. — An unorganized ferment in milk which di- 
gests casein. 

261 



262 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Inoculation. — To seed, to transplant; as to inoculate 
milk with lactic acid germs. 

Insulation. — The state of being protected from heat and 
cold by non-conducting material. 

Lead. — The amount of opening of the steam ports when 
the engine is on the dead center. 

LOPPERED Milk. — Milk that has thickened. 

Mammary Gland. — The organ which secretes milk. 

Medium. — The substance in which bacteria live. Thus, 
milk furnishes an excellent medium for the growth of 
bacteria. 

Meniscus. — A body curved like a first quarter moon. 

Milk Serum. — Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk is 
nearly pure milk serum. 

Mixing Cans. — Small tin cans used for mixing milk pre- 
paratory to testing. 

Neutral. — Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop- 
erties. 

Non-conductor. — A material which does not conduct 
heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty. 

Osmosis. — The tendency in fluids to diffuse or pass 
through membranes. 

Parturition. — The act of being delivered of young. 

Pasteurization. — The process of destroying all or most 
of the vegetative bacteria by the application of heat 
from 140° to 185° F. 

Period of Lactation. — The time from calving to "dry- 
ing up." 

Physical Properties. — The external characteristics of a 
body, like color, odor, hardness, solubility, density, 
form, etc. 

Propagate. — To continue to multiply. Thus, to propa- 
gate a starter means to continue multiplying the lactic 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKIXG 263 

acid bacteria by daily transferring them to a new 

medium such as sweet pasteurized skim-milk. 
Proteids. — Nitrogenous substances like casein and albu- 
men. 
Reducing Valve. — A valve used for regulating steam 

pressure. 
Refrigerant. — In mechanical refrigeration a substance 

whose evaporation produces cold. 
Rennet. — The curdling and digesting principle of calf 

stomach. 
Scoring. — A term used synonymously with judging. 
Secretion. — The act of separating or producing from the 

blood by the vital economy. 
Septic. — Promoting decay. 
Specific Gravity. — The weight of one body as compared 

with an equal volume of some other body taken as 

a standard. 
Specific Heat. — The quantity of heat required to raise 

the temperature of a body one degree. 
Solution. — The state of being dissolved. 
Spore. — The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain 

kinds of bacteria. 
Steam Trap. — An arrangement by which condensed 

steam may be taken out of heating pipes without the 

escape of steam. 
Sterilization. — The process of destroying all germ life 

by the application of heat near 212° F. 
Strippers' Milk. — The milk from cows far advanced in 

the period of lactation. 
Strippings. — The last few streams of milk drawn from 

each teat. 
Suspension. — The state of being held mechanically in a 

liquid, like butter fat in milk. 



264 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Trypsin. — The active agent in the secretion of the 

pancreas. 
Vegetative Bacteria. — Those bacteria that are in an 

actively growing condition. 
Viscosity. — The quaHty of being sticky ; stickiness. 
Volatile. — The state of wasting away on exposure to the 

atmosphere. Easily passing into vapor like ammonia. 
Whole Milk. — Milk which has neither been watered nor 

skimmed. 



INDEX. 



Abnormal fermentations. 

Acid, butyric 

— . oleic 

— , palmitic 



Page 
...47 
...15 
. . 14 
. . 14 



— , sulphuric 28 

. amount of, for cream 230 

— tests for cream 81 

milk 85 

, kinds of 82 

, precautions in making 86 

— measures 27 

Acknowledgments 259 

Adjustment of shafts 193 

Adulteration, milk 39 

, detection of 39-41 

Air compressor 77 

Albumen 17 

Albumenoids 16 

Alvord, H. E., mentioned. .. .256 

Ammonia plant 237 

, operating ' 237 

Anhydrous ammonia 233 

, circulation of 2-33 

Apparatus for Babcock test 25 

buttermilk distribution... 132 

Farrington test 84 

Manns test 82 

purifying water 209 

Appendix 250 

Ash of milk 17 

— tubs 114 

Automatic pipette 229 



Babcock, Dr. S. M., mentioned. 



test 

— apparatus — 
— , how to read. 
— , making a ... 



— , precautions in 



23, 107 
. . 23 

...25 
. . 29 
. . 28 

...30 



Page 

Babcock test, principle of 23 

, sample for a 23 

Bacteria 42 

Bair cream cooler 67 

Basis for butter judging 134 

Bath room, creamery 150 

Bearings, hot 193 

Belting from engine to separa- 
tor 1S9 

—.size of 191 

Belts, friction as applied to.. 191 

— . lacing of 192 

Bichromate of potash 52 

Bitter fermentation 47 

Boiler, steam 165 

, care of 174 

, firing of 172 

. H. P. of 178 

. kinds of 165 

— scale 175 

. cause of 175 

, objection to 176 

, prevention of 176 

Boyd cream ripener 76 

Brine salting 109 

— system of refrigeration 234 

Building, cost of creamery 158 

— . cost of equipping creamery. 159 

Burning, definition of 172 

Butter color 106,139 

— , composition of 250 

— extractor 60- 

— fat 13 

, causes of variations in 

percentage of 19-22 

. composition of 14 

globules 13 

, influence of feed on — 15,16 

, insoluble 14 

, melting point of 14 



265 



266 



INDEX 



Page 
Butter fat. physical properties 

of 13 

, soluble 14 

, specific gravity of 14 

— flavor .'. 138 

— granules 107 

— judging .' 134 

— , marketing 117 

— milk, calculating amount of.l29 

.composition of 251 

distribution 132 

— packages 114 

— packing* 114 

— printer 116 

— prints 115 

— salting 107 

— sample for scoring- 140 

— score cards 136, 137 

— slips 248 

— texture of 139 

— trier 140 

— , washing of 107 

— . water content of 256 

— , working 110 

Butyric acid 15 

— fermentation 46 

By-laws of creamery associa- 
tion 255 

Calculating amount of butter 

milk 129 

skim-milk 128 

— dividends 119 

— milk solids 38 

— speed and size of pulleys 188 

of tester 32 

Calibrating milk bottles 37 

Cans, starter 97 

— . weigh 11 

Care of milk and skim-milk 233 

Casein 16 

Cash book 144 

Chromogenic fermentations 49 

Churning 100 

— , difficult 112 

— . influences on lOO 

— operations 105 

— temperature 101 



Page 
Churning temperature, rule for.102 

— . theory of 100 

Churns 103 

— , cleaning 112 

— , combined 103 

— , Disbrow 105 

— . gas in 107 

— . preparation of 105 

— , speed of 103 

— . straining cream into 106 

— . Victor 104 

Cleaning churns 112 

— test bottles 31 

Cleanliness and cleaning 258 

Cocks, gauge 168 

Color, kinds of 106 

Colostrum milk 18 

, composition of 18 

. physical properties of IS 

Cooling with ice water 77 

. table for 79 

Composite samples 51 

, care of 54 

. frequency of testing 55 

— sampling 51 

— test jar 50 

, double set of 56 

Composition of butter 250 

, butter fat 14 

. buttermilk 251 

cream 250 

milk 12 

skim-milk 251 

Compressor, air 77 

— , ammonia 232 

. power required to oper- 
ate 233 

Conn, mentioned 43,46 

Connecting rod 182 

Contents, table of 9 

Constitution of creamery as- 
sociation 253 

Co— operation 213 

— of butter maker and patron. 215 

Co-operative creameries 213 

. management of 215 

. methods of organizing. . .213 

Corrosive sublimate 52 



INDEX 



267 



Pag" 

Crank, engine 182 

Cream 57 

— acid tests SI 

—, adding color to 106 

— , — ice to SO 

— . advantages of rich 63 

— bottle 25.229 

— , churnability of 69 

—.composition of 250 

— cooler illustrated 205 

— coolers 67 

, Blair 67 

— cooling 75 

— , effect of richness on weight 

of 228 

— , gathered, grading of 230 

, handling of 227 

, pasteurization of 231 

, results of experiments in. 211 

— , pasteurized 71 

— pasteurization 200-205 

, beginning of 200 

. results of experiments in. 206 

— richness of 63,103 

— , regulation of 63 

— ripeners 76 

, Boyd 76 

, Farrington 76 

, ice water attachment of. 78 

— ripening 68 

, control of 73 

, methods of 70 

, natural 71 

, object of 68 

, starter 72 

, temperature for 74 

— . sampling of 227 

— scales 28 

— separators 58 

, choice of 60 

, De Laval 58 

, durauility of 62 

, efficiency of 60 

, history of 58 

, Reid, mentioned 59 

, Sharpies 59 

, United States, mentioned 59 



Page 
Cream tester 229 

— testing 227 

— , titration of 81 

Creamery bath room 150 

— book-keeping 241 

, a simple method of 242 

— building, cost of 158 

, illustrations of 143-145 

— construction 142 

— , durability of 157 

— , equipment, cost of 159 

— , heating of 163 

— ice house 162 

— intake 152 

— location 141 

— machinery, cost of 159 

— mechanics 165 

— refrigerator 160 

— roof 163 

— sanitation 145 

— , saving of labor in 151 

— sewage 146 

— smoke stack 178 

— ventilation 149 

Creaming 57 

— centrifugal 57 

— , definition of 57 

— , gravity 57 

— , processes of 57 

Crosshead 182 

Curdling fermentation 45 

Curtis milk heater &4, 65 

Cylinder, engine 180 

Danish Western separator, men- 
tioned 58 

Day book 178 

De Laval separator 58 

Difficult churning 112 

Dipper sampler 52 

Disbrow churn 105 

Distribution of buttermilk 132 

— . apparatus for 132 

Distribution of skim-milk 130 

. apparatus for 132 

Dividends, calculation of 119 

for milk and cream — 126 



268 



INDEX 



Page 

Douglas starter 91 

Diiclaux, mentioned 69 

Durability of separator 62 

Dry steam 178 

Eccentric 1S2 

Engine, steam 179 

— . care and management of... 186 

—.foundation for 180 

— . horse power of 187 

Equity sampler 52 

Erricson starter 92 

Eugling, quoted IS 

Foundation, creamery 157 

— , engine ISO 

Friction 191 

Frothing 70 

Farrington & Woll, quoted. .32, 228 

— cream ripener 76 

— test 83 

Fat, butter 13 

— globules 13 

— , insoluble 15 

— soluble 16 

Fermentations, milk 43 

— , abnormal 47 

— bitter 47 

— , butyric 46 

— , chromogenic 49 

— , classification of 43 

— , curdling and digesting 45 

— , gassy 49 

— . lactic 44 

— . normal 44 

—.slimy or ropy 48 

— , toxic 49 

Firing of boiler 172 

.pointers on 173 

Flavor, cream 68 

— , butter 138 

Foaming in churning 112 

Formalin 52 

Formula for calculating H. P. 

of engine 187 

milk solids 38 

, size of belting 191 



Page 

Gassy fermentation 49 

(iland, mammary 11 

Glass gauge 167 

Globules, fat 13 

Globulin 16 

Glossary 261 

Governor 1S3 

Gravity process of creaming. . 57 

Gauge cocks 168 

— , steam 168 

Hand separators 60 

Hansen's starter ..: 92 

Hawkins, quoted 177 

Horse power of boiler 178 

engine 187 

Ice house 162 

Injector 168 

— , care of 170 

—.principle of 168 

Insoluble fat 15 

Intake ; 152 

Introduction 7 

Iowa station, mentioned 256 

Jacobus, mentioned 171 

Keeping quality of butter. ..70, 207 

Keith starter 91 

Kelley, H. H., quoted 237 

Koenig, quoted 12 

Kolarik, mentioned 52 

Lacing of belts 192 

Lactic fermentation 44 

Lactometer 34 

— , making test with 34 

, precautions in 36 

— , reading of 34 

, corrections for tem- 
perature in 34 

, interpretation of 35 

Ledger 244 

Lefeldt, mentioned 58 

Lining up shafting 198 

Location of creamery 141 



INDEX 



269 



Page 

Location of engine 156 

refrigerator and ice house.156 

Lubricator 185 

Machinery, creamery 153 

, cost of 159 

Mammary glands H 

Manns' test 82 

Marketing butter H" 

Marshall, mentioned 95 

Mechanical refrigeration 232 

, charging and operating 

plant 237 

, machines for 232 

.principle of 232 

.systems of 234 

, brine system of 234 

Mechanics, creamery 165 

Methods of cream ripening — 70 

sampling 52 

Metric system 252 

Milk 11 

— adulteration 39 

, detection of o9-41 

— , amphioteric reaction of 11 

— book 246 

— bottle 25 

tester 30 

— , colostrum IS 

— , composition of 12 

, maximum and mini- 
mum 13 

Milk cooler and aerator 223 

— fermentations 43 

— heaters 65 

, Curtis 65 

, classes of 65 

, direct 65 

, objections to 65 

, indirect 65 

, Reid 66 

, Twentieth Century 65 

— , physical properties of 11 

— secretion 18 

— sheet 246 

— solids 36 

, calculation of 38 



Page 

Milk, specific gravity of 12 

— sugar 17 

— , variations in quality of — 19-22 

— , viscosity of 12 

Monrad, mentioned 257 

Monthly statements 122 

Mortenson, quoted 203 

New Jersey Station, quoted — 21 
Nuclein 16 

Oils 193 

Oleic acid 14 

Order book 243 

Overrun 121 

— , theoretical :.. 128 

Packages, kinds of 114 

—, foreign trade 116 

— , home trade 114 

Packing 195 

— butter 114 

Palmitic acid 14 

Pasteurized butter making in 

America 201 

, methods of 203 

Pasteurization of cream 200 

, beginning of 20i) 

skim-milk 224 

, illustrated 226 

Pasteurizer and cooler 204 

— Reid 66 

I»asteurizers, kinds of.. 203 

Pasteurizing cream, cost of — 210 
, results of experiments in. 206 

— gathered cream 210 

, results of experiments 

in 211 

Pay roll register 244 

Period of lactation, effect of, 

on milk 20 

Physical properties of milk — 11 

butter fat 13 

colostrum milk 18 

Pipes and piping 185 

Pipette 27 

— , automatic 229 

Piston, working of 181 



270 



INDEX 



Page 

Prandtl, mentioned 5S 

Preface 5 

Preservatives 52 

Principle of Babcock test 23 

mechanical refrigeration.. 232 

Print butter 115 

Printer, butter 116 

Process of creaming, gravity. . 57 

— , centrifugal 57 

Pulleys, calculating size and 

speed of 188 

Pumps 170 

Purilication of wash water for 

butter 207 

, apparatus for 209 

.by filtration 208 

heating 208 

Rate of salt 108 

Refrigerating capacity 235 

— pipes 236 

Refrigeration, mechanical 232 

, systems of 234 

Refrigerator 160 

Reid pasteurizer 66 

— separator, mentioned 59 

Richmond, quoted 14, 250, 251 

Richness of cream 63 

, regulation of 63 

for churning 102 

Rule for calculating buttermilk. 129 

size of pulleys 188 

skim-milk ". 128 

speed of pulleys 188 

churning temperature 101 

determining H. P. of 

boiler 178 

Russell, quoted 45, 47 

Safety valve 16S 

Sales book 243 

Salt an absorbent 110 

Salting 107 

— , brine 109 

Sample, amount of, for test... 23 

Samplers, milk 52 

Sampling of milk, composite.. 51 



Page 

Sanitation, creamery 145 

Scale, boiler 175 

, cause of 175 

.objection to 176 

, prevention of 176 

Scovell sampler 52 

Separating temperature 63 

Septic tank 146 

Setting slide valve 182 

Sewage, creamery 146 

Shafting, lining up 198 

Shafts, adjustment of 193 

Sharpies separator 59 

Siebel, quoted 235 

Skim-milk bottle 26 

— . calculating amount of 128 

—, composition of 251 

—, distribution of 130 

, apparatus for 132 

— pasteurization 224 

— table 131 

— weighers 130 

Skimming stations 258 

Slide valve 180 

, setting 180 

Slimy fermentation 48 

Smoke stack 178 

Solids, milk 36 

, calculation of 38 

— not fat 36 

, relationship of fat and 37 

Soluble fats 16 

Specific gravity as affected by 

richness of milk 37 

of butter fat 14 

milk 12 

Speed of pulleys 188 

Spruce tubs 114 

Starter cans 97 

— ripening 72 

Starters 88 

— , acidity of 95 

— , carrying several 96 

— , classification of S9 

— , commercial 91 

, preparation of 92 

— definition of , 88 



IXDEX 



271 



I'age 

Starters. Douglas 91 

— . Erricson 92 

— . Hansen 92 

— . Keith 91 

— , natural 89 

, preparation of 90 

— , natural vs. commercial 93 

— . object of 88 

— . pointers on 98 

— . renewal of 96 

— . selection of milk for 94 

— . using of, every other day.. 94 

— , whole milk 95 

Steam 171 

— boiler 165 

— cylinder 180 

— . dry 178 

— engine 179 

— fittings 195 

— gauge 168 

— piston 181 

— . wet 177 

Storch. mentioned 8S, 200 

Straining cream 106 

— milk 224 

Sulphuric acid 28 

, strength of ....'. 28 

Tainted milk 219 

. detection of 219 

.making test for 220 

Test, Babcock 23 

— book 247 

Tester, Babcock 24 

— , calculating speed of 32 

~, milk bottle 30 

Testing acidity of milk 85 



Page 
Testing acidity of milk, rapid 

method for 85 

Testing cream 227 

— acidity of cream SI 

— , pointers on 32 

— , supervision of 56 

Tliermometer scales 251 

, comparison of 251 

Titration 81 

— of cream 81 

— — milk 85 

Tools 19i 

Toxic fermentation 49 

Twentieth century heater 65 

V. S. separator, mentioned .59 

Utensils, cleaning 258 

Valve chest 180 

— setting slide 182 

Valves 196 

— , globe 196 

, parts of 197 

, repairing of 197 

— , kinds of 196 

VanSlyke. quoted 20,37 

Vessels, cleaning 258 

Victor churn 104 

Washing butter 107 

Wash water, purification of... 207 

Water content of butter 256 

, methods of control- 
ling 257 

Weigh can gate opener 11 

Wisconsin curd test 220 

Working butter 110 

Working of piston 181 



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